Learn to write 101 by Kimberly Jackson (best historical biographies TXT) 📕

Apostrophe

The apostrophe has three uses:
1) to form possessives of nouns
2) to show the omission of letters
3) to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters.
Forming possessives
the boy’s hat
three day’s journey
If the noun after “of” is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed. For example: The car door.
Showing omission
He’ll go = He will go
could’ve = could have (Not “could of”!)
Forming plurals
Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase. For example:
Mind your p’s and q’s
2. Parentheses

Parentheses are occasionally and sparingly used for extra, nonessential material included in a sentence. For example, dates, sources, or ideas that are subordinate or tangential to the rest of the sentence are set apart in parentheses. Parentheses always appear in pairs.
Before arriving at the station, the old train (someone said it was a relic of frontier days) caught fire.
1. Dash or Hyphen

Dash
Use the dash to emphasize a point or to set off an explanatory comment; but don’t overuse dashes, or they will lose their impact. A dash is typically represented on a computer by two hyphens with no spaces before, after, or between the hyphens.
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical–even revolutionary.
It is also used for an appositive phrase that already includes commas.
The boys–Jim, John, and Jeff–left the party early.
As you can see, the dash can be used in the same way as parentheses.
Hyphen
Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:
chocolate-covered peanuts
Don’t use the hyphen when the noun comes first:
The peanuts are chocolate covered
Use a hyphen with compound numbers: Forty-five
You should also use a hyphen to avoid confusion in a sentence:
He had to re-sign the contract
He had to resign his job
Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:
ex-husband
self-assured
mid-September
all-inclusive
mayor-elect
anti-American
T-shirt
pre-Civil War
mid-1980s


Exclamation Points
Sometimes called the exclamation mark, the exclamation point is used at the end of a sentence or after an interjection to show strong emotion or emphasis.
Exclamatory sentence: The rain did not stop for four days!
Strong command: Be back at ten o'clock or else!
Interjection: Wow!
When an emphatic interjection or direct address begins a sentence, you may use an exclamation point or a comma, depending on how much you want to show the strong emotion.
Correct: No, I don't want to go there.
Correct, more emotion: No, I don't want to go there!
Correct, even more emphasis: No! I don't want to go there!
Beware of overusing exclamation points. Using them too frequently makes them less meaningful.
Use of an exclamation point inside parentheses is used by some to show irony.
Usually, the ironic tone should be clear from the words, but sometimes this special punctuation is added for emphasis. Some authorities do not consider this construction necessary, and it is of very limited use in most standard English writing.
OK, informal: That butcher (!) is a vegetarian.
(The punctuation is probably not necessary, but it was placed there to emphasize the irony.)


The Three Most Common Comma Rules
While there are many specific uses for commas, nearly eighty-five percent of the commas used in written English are used in a mere three situations.
If you know the basic rule for these three cases, you can use commas in over four-fifths of the times you need to use commas.
1. Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction that separates two independent clauses.
For more on this, see Commas in Compound Sentences.
2. Put a comma after introductory words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence.
For more on this, see Commas and Introductory Words, Commas After Introductory Phrases, and Commas After Introductory Clauses.
3. Use commas to set off elements that interrupt or add information in a sentence.
For more on this, see Commas with Interrupting Expressions and Commas with Nonrestrictive Modifiers.


Commas in Compound Sentences
Use a comma to separate independent clauses in a compound sentence when they are separated by a conjunction.
The comma goes after the first clause and before the coordinating conjunction that separates the clauses.
Make sure they are independent clauses and not some other construction where commas are not required.
Correct: We washed the dog, and then we cleaned up the mess that he made.
(This contains two independent clauses with their own subject and verb: We washed and we cleaned. The third clause, that he made, is a subordinate clause, so the rule does not apply.
Incorrect: We washed the dog, and then cleaned up his mess.
(There is only one subject. This is a single clause, not two independent clauses. The subject we has a compound verb.)
Correct: We washed the dog and then cleaned up his mess.

Semicolons with Clauses
Semicolons are used to separate independent clauses in three different cases.
1. When there are no conjunctions separating the clauses.
Incorrect: I like you, John likes you, too.
(Semicolon needed)
Correct: I like you; John likes you, too.
2. When the clauses are separated by a conjunctive adverb or other parenthetical expression set off by commas.
Correct: I am crucified with Christ; nevertheless, I live.--Galatians 2:20.
(Nevertheless is a conjunctive adverb.)
Correct: Hector was a Trojan; Achilles, on the other hand, was an Achaean.
3. When the clauses themselves contain commas.
Incorrect: He wears shoes with kilties, a leather fringe, but I prefer penny loafers myself.
(Since clause already has comma, semicolon separating the clauses is needed to make sentence clear.)
Correct: He wears shoes with kilties, a leather fringe; but I prefer penny loafers myself.


Semicolons in a Series
When the items in a series themselves contain commas, separate the items with semicolons.
Incorrect: We visited Erie, Pennsylvania, Buffalo, New York, and Toronto, Ontario.
(Confusing. Semicolons needed to make clear distinctions.)
Correct: We visited Erie, Pennsylvania; Buffalo, New York; and Toronto, Ontario.
See also Commas in a Series.


Quotations Marks in Direct Quotations
When a person or work is quoted directly and word for word, the quotation is placed in quotation marks.
An indirect quotation in which the substance but not exact wording is used does not take quotations marks.
Correct: Macbeth said, "All our yesterdays have lighted fools the way to dusty death."
(A direct quotation)
Incorrect: Macbeth said that, "Their past actions lead fools to death."
(Contains the substance, but not exact words. Quotation marks are not used.)
Correct: Macbeth said that their past actions lead fools to death.
See Quotation Marks Index for more on quotation marks.

Question Marks or Exclamation Points in Quotations
If a question or exclamation is quoted directly, the quotation contains the question mark or exclamation point.
If the question or exclamation is at the end of the quotation, the question mark or exclamation point comes before the closing quotation mark.
Incorrect: "Look at that"! he exclaimed. "Did you see that"?
Correct: "Look at that!" he exclaimed. "Did you see that?"
(Question mark or exclamation point comes before quotation mark.)
A question mark can be found outside the quotation mark if the sentence is asking about a quotation, but the quotation itself is not a question.
Incorrect: Did Mark Antony say, "Friends, Romans, countrymen?"
(A question is not being quoted. The speaker is asking about a quotation.)
Correct: Did Mark Antony say, "Friends, Romans, countrymen"?
In the rare case where the question is about a quotation ending in a question, the sentence ends with a single question mark before the quotation mark.
Incorrect: Who said, "Et tu, Bruté?"?
(Second question mark redundant)
Correct: Who said, "Et tu, Bruté?"
See also Question Marks and Quotations with Other Punctuation Marks.

Quotation Marks in Dialogue
Begin a new paragraph with every change of speaker.
Incorrect:
"Hello, Mary," Jeffrey stammered. "Hi, Jeffrey, how are you?" "Uh, fine. What have you been doing lately?"
Correct:
"Hello, Mary," Jeffrey stammered.
"Hi, Jeffrey, how are you?"
"Uh, fine. What have you been doing lately?"
For quotations longer than a single paragraph, put quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph but only at the end of the final quoted word.
This is the only case in which an opening quotation mark may not have a matching closing quotation mark.
Example:
Carton continued: "I see that child who lay upon her bosom and who bore my name, a man winning his way up in that path of life which once was mine. I see him winning it so well, that my name is made illustrious there by the bright light of his. I see the blots I threw upon it faded away. I see him, foremost of thee just judges and honored men, bringing a boy of my name, with a forehead that I know and golden hair, to this place--then fair to look upon, with not a trace of this day's disfigurement--and I hear him tell the child my story, with a tender and faltering voice.
"It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever known."
(Because the quotation is longer than a paragraph, note that the first paragraph has no closing quotation marks. Quotation marks do open the next paragraph to show that the quotation continues.)


Dashes
A dash is a long horizontal mark twice the length of a hyphen. On most typewriters and computers dashes are represented by typing two hyphens.
Dashes are emphatic. They are nearly like emphatic parentheses.
To be effective, dashes, like exclamation points, should not be overused.
Dashes indicate an abrupt change of thought.
Sometimes they set off a clause or phrase for emphasis or dramatic effect.
Change of thought: I loved the dinner last night--have you you ever been to Chez Louis?
Set off statement for emphasis: Punctuation marks can be confusing--commas, dashes, hyphens, colons!
See also Parentheses and Dashes with Nonrestrictive Modifiers.


Dashes with Nonrestrictive Modifiers
Commas are normally used to set off nonrestrictive modifiers.
However, nonrestrictive modifiers can be set off by dashes for emphasis or if the modifiers contain commas or other punctuation that could confuse the reader.
Incorrect: Some expensive films, Heaven's Gate, for example, have been big flops.
(Relationships not clear)
Correct: Some expensive films--Heaven's Gate, for example--have been big flops.
(Modifier itself has a comma.)
See also Commas with Nonrestrictive Modifiers.

Parentheses
Parentheses set off material not essential to the meaning of the text.
They are used for asides and explanations when the material is not essential or if it is made up of more than one sentence.
Parentheses may contain a complete sentence or sentences.
Example: He had to go through the usual process to get his bus driver's license (police and FBI check, reference check, motor vehicle check, written exam, mechanical test, and driving test).
(This could be set off by a colon for more emphasis since it is a list or by a dash for strong emphasis. But since the sentence says "the usual process," there is no need to emphasize anything.)
See also Dashes and Capitalizing and Punctuation in Parentheses.


Hyphenated Prefixes and Suffixes
Use a hyphen after a prefix followed by a proper noun or proper adjective.
Examples: mid-June pre-Columbian Afro-American
Use a hyphen in words beginning with the prefixes all-, ex- (meaning "former"), and self- and in words ending with the suffix -elect.
Incorrect: selfpropelled ex-treme
(Prefix self- needs hyphen. The prefix in extreme does not mean "former.")
Correct: all-knowing