A Treatise on Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene (Revised Edition) by Calvin Cutter (read more books .txt) 📕
13. One of the most important distinctions between animals and plants, is the different effects of respiration. Animals consume the oxygen of the atmosphere, and give off carbonic acid; while plants take up the carbonic acid, and restore to animals the oxygen, thus affording an admirable example of the principle of compensation in nature.
14. But the decisive distinctions between animals and plants are
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745. The patheticus. What does fig. 125 represent? 746. What is the trifacial nerve sometimes called? Why is it classed with the cranial spinal nerves? Give the names of its branches.
337747. The ophthalmic nerve passes from the cranial cavity through the sphenoidal fissure. It sends branches to the forehead, eye, and nose. The superior maxillary nerve passes through an opening in the base of the skull, (foramen ro-tund´dum,) and sends branches to the eye, the teeth of the upper jaw, and the muscles of the face. The inferior maxillary nerve escapes from the cranial cavity through an opening called foramen o-va´le. It sends branches to the muscles of the lower jaw, the ear, the tongue, and the teeth of the lower jaw.
Fig. 126.
Fig. 126. The distribution of the fifth pair of nerves. 1, The orbit for the eye. 2, The upper jaw. 3, The tongue. 4, The lower jaw. 5, The fifth pair of nerves. 6, The first branch of this nerve, that passes to the eye. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, Divisions of this branch. 7, The second branch of the fifth pair of nerves is distributed to the teeth of the upper jaw. 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, Divisions of this branch. 8, The third branch of the fifth pair, that passes to the tongue and teeth of the lower jaw. 23. The division of this branch that passes to the tongue, called the gust´a-to-ry. 24. The division that is distributed to the teeth of the lower jaw.
747. Where do the filaments of the ophthalmic branch ramify? The superior maxillary? The inferior maxillary? Explain fig. 126.
338748. The ABDUCENTES (sixth pair) passes through the opening by which the carotid artery enters the cranial cavity. It is the smallest of the cerebral nerves, and is appropriated to the external straight muscle of the eye.
749. The PORTIO MOLLIS (seventh pair) enters the hard portion of the tem´po-ral bone at the internal auditory opening, and is distributed upon the internal ear. (Fig. 147, 148.)
Fig. 127.
Fig. 127. A representation of the distribution of the eighth pair of nerves with some branches of the fifth. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, Are branches of the eighth pair. They are distributed over the face in a radiated manner, which constitutes the pes anserinus, (foot of a goose.) The nerves 4, 6, 8, are branches of the fifth pair. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, Are branches of nerves from the upper part of the spinal cord, (cervical.)
750. The FACIAL NERVE (eighth pair) passes from the skull through an opening situated below the ear, (mas´toid foramen.) It is distributed over the face, supplying the muscles with nervous filaments.
748. What is said of the abducentes, or sixth pair of nerves? 749. Of the portio mollis? Explain fig. 127. 750. Of the facial nerve?
339751. The GLOSSO-PHARYNGEAL NERVE (ninth pair) passes from the brain, through an opening with the jugular vein, (foramen lac´e-rum.) It is distributed to the mucous membrane of the tongue and throat, and also to the mucous glands of the mouth.
752. the PNEUMOGASTRIC NERVE (tenth pair) escapes from the brain through the foramen lacerum. It sends branches to the larynx, pharynx, œsophagus, lungs, spleen, pancreas, liver, stomach, and intestines. (Fig. 132.)
753. The SPINAL ACCESSORY NERVE (eleventh pair) has its origin in the respiratory tract of the spinal cord. It connects with the ninth and tenth pairs of nerves, and is distributed to the muscles about the neck.
754. The HYPO-GLOSSAL NERVE (twelfth pair) passes from the brain, through a small opening, (con´dy-loid foramen.) It ramifies upon the muscles of the tongue, and is its motor nerve.
Observation. The cranial nerves, with the exception of the olfactory, optic, and auditory, connect with each other by means of filaments. They also send connecting nervous filaments to the upper spinal nerves, (cervical,) and the sympathetic nerve.
751. Describe the glosso-pharyngeal nerve. 752. The pneumogastric nerve. 753. The spinal accessory nerve. 754. The hypo-glossal nerve.
755. The spinal column contains the spinal cord, the roots of the spinal nerves, and the membranes of the cord.
756. The SPINAL CORD extends from the medulla oblongata to the second lumbar vertebra, where it terminates in a rounded point. It presents a difference of diameter in different parts of its extent, and exhibits three enlargements. The uppermost of these is the medulla oblongata. There is no distinct demarkation between this enlargement and the spinal cord. The next corresponds with the origin of the nerves distributed to the upper extremities; the third enlargement is situated near the termination of the cord, and corresponds with the attachment of the nerves which are intended for the supply of the lower extremities.
757. An anterior and posterior fissure divides the spinal cord into two lateral cords. These are united by a thin layer of white substance. The lateral cords are each divided by furrows into three distinct sets of fibres, or columns; namely the anterior, lateral, and posterior columns. The anterior are the motor columns; the posterior are the columns of sensation; the lateral columns are divided in their function between motion and sensation. They contain the fasciculus described, by Sir Charles Bell, as the respiratory tract. 341
Fig. 128.
Fig. 129.
Fig. 128. A section of the brain and spinal column. 1, The cerebrum. 2, The cerebellum. 3, The medulla oblongata. 4, 4, The spinal cord in its canal.
Fig. 129. Anterior view of the brain and spinal cord. 1, 1, The two hemispheres of the cerebrum. 3, 3, The cerebellum. 4, The olfactory nerve. 5, The optic nerve. 7, The third pair of nerves. 8, The pons varolii. 9, The fourth pair of nerves. 10, The lower portion of the medulla oblongata. 11, 11, The spinal cord. 12, 12, Spinal nerves. 13, 13, The brachial plexus. 14, 14, The lumbar and sacral plexus.
755–767. Give the anatomy of the spinal cord, spinal nerves, and the sympathetic nerve. 755. What does the spinal column contain? 756. Give the extent of the spinal cord. How many enlargements has this cord? What is said of each enlargement? 757. Into how many parts is the spinal cord divided? Give the function of these columns.
758. The SPINAL NERVES, that connect with the spinal cord, are arranged in thirty-one pairs, each arising by two 342 roots; an anterior, or motor root, and a posterior, or sensitive root. Each nerve, when minutely examined, is found to consist of an aggregate of very delicate filaments, enclosed in a common cellular envelope.
758. How many pairs of nerves issue from the spinal cord? Explain fig. 128. Fig. 129.
759. The anterior roots arise from a narrow white line upon the anterior columns of the spinal cord. The posterior roots arise from a narrow gray band formed by the internal gray substance of the cord. They are larger, and the filaments of origin more numerous than those of the anterior roots. A ganglion is found upon each of the posterior roots in the openings between the bones of the spinal column through which the nerve passes.
Fig. 130.
Fig. 130. A section of the spinal cord, surrounded by its sheath. B, A spinal nerve, formed by the union of the motor root (C) and the sensitive root (D.) At D, the ganglion upon this root is seen.
760. After the formation of the ganglion, the two roots unite, and constitute a spinal nerve, which passes through the opening between the vertebræ on the sides of the spinal column. The nerves divide and subdivide, until their minute filaments ramify on the tissues of the different organs.
759. Give the origin of the anterior roots. Of the posterior roots. In what respect do the posterior roots differ from the anterior? 760. When do the two roots unite, and where do they pass?
343761. The spinal nerves are divided into—
762. The four lower cervical and upper dorsal pass into each other and then separate to reunite. This is called the brach´i-al plex´us. From this plexus six nerves proceed, which ramify upon the muscles and skin of the upper extremities.
763. The last dorsal and the five lumbar nerves form a plexus called the lumbar, similar to that of the cervical. Six nerves pass from this plexus, which ramify upon the muscles and skin of the lower extremities.
764. The last lumbar and the four upper sacral unite to form the sacral plexus. From this plexus five nerves proceed, that are distributed to the muscles and skin of the hip and lower extremities.
765. The SYMPATHETIC NERVE[19] consists of a series of Gan´gli-a, or knots, extending each side of the spinal column, forming a chain its whole length. It communicates with both the cranial and spinal nerves. With the exception of the neck, there is a ganglion for each intervertebral space. These ganglia are composed of a mixture of cineritious and medullary matter, and are supposed to be productive of peculiar nervous power.
761. Give the division of the spinal nerves. 762. What nerves constitute the brachial plexus? How many nerves pass from this plexus? 763. How many nerves from the lumbar plexus, and where do they ramify? 764. How is the sacral plexus formed? 765. Of what does the sympathetic nerve consist? How is the sympathetic nerve distributed? What exception? Of what are the ganglia composed?
Fig. 131.
Fig. 131. A beautiful representation of the sympathetic ganglia and their connection with other nerves. It is from the grand engraving of Manec, reduced in size. A, A, A, The semilunar ganglion and solar plexus, situated below the diaphragm and behind the stomach. This ganglion is situated in the region (pit of the stomach) where a blow gives severe suffering. D, D, D, The thoracic ganglia, ten or eleven in number. E, E, The external and internal branches of the thoracic ganglia. G, H, The right and left coronary plexus, situated upon the heart. I, N, Q, The inferior, middle, and superior cervical ganglia. 1, The renal plexus of nerves that surrounds the kidneys. 2, The lumbar ganglion. 3, Their internal branches. 4, Their external branches. 5, The aortic plexus of nerves that lies upon the aorta. The other letters and figures represent nerves that connect important organs and nerves with the sympathetic ganglia.
766. The GANGLIA may be considered as distinct centres, giving off branches in four directions; namely, the superior, or ascending, to communicate with the ganglion above; the inferior, or descending, to communicate with the ganglion below; the external, to communicate with the spinal nerves; and the internal, to communicate with the sympathetic filaments. It is generally admitted that the nerves that pass from the ganglia are larger than those that entered them; as if they imparted to the nerve some additional power.
767. The branches of distribution accompany the arteries which supply the different organs, and form communications around them, which are called plexuses, and take the name of the artery with which they are associated. Thus we have the mesenteric plexus, hepatic plexus, splenic plexus, &c. All the internal organs of the head, neck, and trunk, are supplied with branches from the sympathetic, and some of them exclusively; for this reason, it is considered a nerve of organic life.
What is the design of fig, 131? 766. How may the ganglia
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