A Treatise on Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene (Revised Edition) by Calvin Cutter (read more books .txt) π
13. One of the most important distinctions between animals and plants, is the different effects of respiration. Animals consume the oxygen of the atmosphere, and give off carbonic acid; while plants take up the carbonic acid, and restore to animals the oxygen, thus affording an admirable example of the principle of compensation in nature.
14. But the decisive distinctions between animals and plants are
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Observation. The structure of this organ can be seen by first freezing the eye of a sheep or an ox; it then can be cut in various directions, and each part separately examined.
905. The MUSCLES of the eye are six in number. They are attached, at one extremity, to the bones of the orbit behind the eye; at the other extremity, they are inserted by broad, thin tendons, near the junction of the cornea with the sclerotic coat. The white, pearly appearance of the eye is caused by these tendons.
Fig. 140.
Fig. 140. A view of the eye and its muscles. a, b, c, d, e, Five of these muscles. f, The optic nerve. G, The trochlea, or pulley over which one of the muscles passes. The bone is seen above and below the eye.
Observation. If the external muscle is too short, the eye is turned out, producing the βwall eye.β If the internal 401 muscle is contracted, the eye is turned inward toward the nose. It is then called a βcross eye.β
905. How many muscles has the eye? Give their attachments. What causes the pearly appearance of the eye? What does fig. 140 represent? What is the effect if the external muscle is contracted? The internal muscle?
906. The PROTECTING ORGANS are the OrΒ΄bits, Eyebrows, Eyelids, and LachΒ΄ry-mal Apparatus.
907. The ORBITS are deep, bony sockets, in which the globes of the eyes are situated. They have the form of a cone, the base of which is open and directed forward. The bottom of the orbits is pierced by a large hole which gives passage to the optic nerve. These cavities are lined with a thick cushion of fat, in order that the eyes may move in all directions, with perfect freedom and without friction.
908. The EYEBROWS are two projecting arches of integument, covered with short, thick hairs, which form the upper boundary of the orbits. The eyebrows are so arranged that they prevent the moisture that accumulates on the forehead, in free perspiration, from flowing into the eye, and also shade these organs from too vivid light.
909. The EYELIDS are two movable curtains placed in front of the eye. They have a delicate skin on the outside, muscular fibres beneath, and a narrow cartilage on their edges, which tends to preserve the shape of the lid. Internally, they are lined by a smooth membrane, which is reflected over the front of the eye upon the sclerotica. This membrane is called the con-junc-tiΒ΄va. It secretes the fluid that moistens and lubricates the eye, and which causes the eyelids to open and shut without friction.
Observation. When the portion of this membrane that is reflected over the globe of the eye, is inflamed, there is frequently a deposition of whitish material, called lymph. This accounts for the films, opacities, and white spots seen upon the eye after the inflammation has subsided.
906. Name the protecting organs of the eye. 907. Describe the orbits. How are the movements of the eye facilitated? 908. Describe the eyebrows. What does this arrangement prevent? 909. Describe the eyelids. What is the use of the conjunctiva? How are the white spots frequently seen upon the eye accounted for?
402910. There are found several small glands on the internal surface of the cartilage, which have the appearance of parallel strings of pearls. They open by minute apertures upon the edges of the lids. The secretion from these glands prevents the edges of the eyelids from being united during sleep.
911. The edges of the eyelids are furnished with a triple row of long, thick hairs, called eyelashes, which curve upward from the upper lid, and downward from the lower, so that they may not interlace with each other in the closure of the eyelids. These appendages of the eye, by closing, not only protect it from moisture, but from dust, particularly during sleep. They likewise, by their movements in opening and shutting, spread the lubricating fluid equally over the eye.
912. The LACHRYMAL APPARATUS, which secretes the tears, consists of the Lachrymal Gland with its ducts, Lachrymal Canals, and the Nasal Duct.
913. The LACHRYMAL GLAND is situated at the upper and outer angle of the orbit. It is about three quarters of an inch in length, flattened and oval in shape, and occupies a depression in the orbital plate of the frontal bone. Ten or twelve small ducts pass from this gland, and open upon the upper eyelid, where they pour upon the conjunctiva the lachrymal fluid, or tears. This secretion is maintained while we are asleep, as well as when we are awake. The eye from this cause is kept constantly moist.
914. The LACHRYMAL CANALS commence at minute openings upon the free borders of each eyelid, near the internal 403 angle of the eye, by two small orifices, called puncΒ΄ta lach-ry-maΒ΄li-a, (tear points.) Each of these points communicate with the sac at the upper part of the nasal duct.
910. What are found on the internal surface of the cartilage of the eyelids? Where do they open, and what is their use? 911. With what are the edges of the eyelids furnished? What are their uses? 912. Of what does the lachrymal apparatus consist? 913. Describe the lachrymal gland. How many ducts pass from this gland, and what do they convey to the eye? Why is the eye constantly moist? 914. Where do the lachrymal canals commence?
915. The NASAL DUCT is a short canal, about three quarters of an inch in length, directed downward and backward to the inferior channel of the nose, where it terminates by an expanded orifice.
Fig. 141.
Fig. 141. 1, The lachrymal gland. 2, Ducts leading from the lachrymal gland to the upper eyelid. 3, 3, The puncta lachrymalia. 4, The nasal sac. 5, The termination of the nasal duct.
916. The fluid (tears) secreted by the lachrymal gland, is conveyed to the eye by the small ducts before described. It is then imbibed by the puncta lachrymalia, and carried by the lachrymal canals into the lachrymal sac, from which it is passed to the nasal cavities by the nasal ducts.
What are they called? With what do they communicate? 915. Describe the nasal duct. 916. How are the tears conveyed from the lachrymal gland to the nose?
917. To comprehend the theory of vision, it is not sufficient to know the structure of the eye. We must be familiar with some of the properties of a subtile fluid, which is constantly emanating from all luminous bodies, called light.
918. It is the province of natural philosophy, rather than physiology, to enter minutely upon the properties of light. It may be observed, however, that, when light passes through any medium of the same density, the rays are in straight lines; but, when it passes from one medium into another of different density, it is refracted, or turned from a straight course, unless it strikes the medium in a perpendicular directionβthen light passes through without a change of direction.
919. When a ray of light meets with a body, it either passes through it, or is reflected by it, or it may be absorbed. Again, in proportion as the rays of light become distant from the body from which they emanate, they diverge one from the other. In accordance with the laws of optics, the rays of light, in passing through an optical instrument like the eye, must cross each other, and thus produce an inverted image of the object from which the rays proceed. With the general 405 view of the structure of the eye, we will now examine the use of each part in the function of vision.
917β933. Give the physiology of the organs of vision. 917. What is necessary in order to understand the theory of vision? 918. When light passes through a medium of the same density, in what direction will be its rays? Of a different density? What exception? 919. When light meets with a body, what takes place? What is said in reference to rays of light in passing through the eye?
920. The sclerotic coat not only gives form to the body of the eye, but protection to the interior and more delicate parts. The choroid coat seems to be chiefly composed of a tissue of nerves and minute blood-vessels; the latter give nourishment to the different parts of the eye. One of the uses of this coat is, to absorb the rays of light immediately after they have passed through the retina. This is effected by the black pigment that lines its inner surface. Were it not for this provision, light would be too intense, and vision indistinct.
Observation. In albinos, where there is an absence of the black pigment, the rays of light traverse the iris, and even the choroid coat, and so overwhelm the eye with light, that their vision is quite imperfect, except in the dimness of evening, or at night. In the manufacture of optical instruments, care is taken to color their interior black, for the same object, namely, the absorption of scattered rays.
921. The iris, by means of its powers of expansion and contraction, regulates the quantity of light admitted through the pupil. If the iris is thin, and the rays of light pass through its substance, they are immediately absorbed by the uvea, and, if that layer be insufficient, they are taken up by the black pigment of the choroid coat.
Observation. When we look toward the bottom of the eye, the pupil appears like a black spot, instead of an opening. This is caused by seeing the black pigment through the retina and humors of the eye.
920. What is the use of the sclerotic coat? Of what is the choroid coat chiefly composed? What is the use of this coat? How is it effected? What is said of albinos? What care is taken in the manufacture of optical instruments? 921. What is the use of the iris? When we look toward the bottom of the eye, why does the pupil look like a black spot, instead of an opening?
406922. The cornea, and the aqueous, crystalline, and vitreous humors, are transparent; so that rays of light traverse these parts of the eye, and fall upon the retina. The office of these humors and the cornea is to refract the rays of light in such proportion as to direct the image in the most favorable manner upon the retina.
923. The office of the retina is to receive the impression of the rays of light which leave an object at which we look, and it is upon it that a small but very clear image of that object is formed. The impression thus produced by the reflected light is transmitted by the optic nerve to the brain, which receives the sensation. This constitutes vision.
924. The optic nerve has but one function, that of sight. Sensibility is conferred on this organ by a large branch from the fifth pair of nerves, which ramifies upon the different parts of the eye and its appendages. These parts, however, receive some nervous filaments from the seventh pair.
Observations. 1st. The large number of sensitive nervous filaments renders the visual organ very impressible to bodies that cause irritation, as dust, or intense light. This compels us to use due care to shield the eye from the influence of agents that would impair or destroy vision.
2d. Although particles of dust, when in contact with the delicate parts of the eye, induce severe pain, yet these parts may be cut in surgical operations, and the patientβs sufferings are not
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