Higher Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (popular books to read TXT) 📕

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LESSON 63.

COMPLEX SENTENCE—ADVERB CLAUSE.

+Introductory Hints+.—_He arrived late_. You have learned that you can expand the adverb late into a phrase, and say, He arrived at midnight. You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of +Time+, and say, He arrived when the clock struck twelve.

He stood where I am. The clause introduced by where expresses +Place+, and is equivalent to the adverb here or to the phrase in this place.

This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant. The clause introduced by as … as modifies profitable, telling the +Degree+ of the quality expressed by it.

A clause that does the work of an adverb is an +Adverb Clause+.

Analysis.

The +adverb clause+ may express +time+.

1. When pleasure calls, we listen.

we | listen ===|========= | `When ` pleasure | calls –––|–-–– |

+Explanation+.—When modifies both listen and calls, denoting that the two acts take place at the same time. It also connects pleasure calls, as an adverb modifier, to listen. The offices of the conjunctive adverb when may be better understood by expanding it into two phrases thus: We listen at the time at which pleasure calls. At the time modifies listen, at which modifies calls, and which connects.

The line representing when is made up of three parts to picture these three offices. The part representing when as a modifier of calls is, for convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it.

2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. 3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then ths Lord will take me up.

Lord | will take | me ======|===================== The | up .. then ` ` `When father ––––’ my ‘ ‘ ‘ | forsake | me ‘and -–|––––––– ‘ / |

‘ /

mother ‘ /

––––’/

my

+Explanation+.—By changing then into at the time, and when into at which, the offices of these two words will be clearly seen. For explanation of the line representing when, see Lesson 14 and (1) above.

4. Cato, before he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the night in reading Plato’s “Immortality.” [Footnote: Some prefer, in constructions like this, to treat before, ere, after, till, until, and since as prepositions followed by noun clauses.] 5. Many a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave. [Footnote: See (11), Lesson 38, and footnote.]

+Explanation+.—_Many_ here modifies year, or, rather, year as modified by a.

6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon.

Blucher | arrived ===========|=========== | -–— `as just ` ` Wellington | was meeting | onslaught ––––—|–—-–––––––— |

+Explanation+.—Just may be treated as a modifier of the dependent clause. A closer analysis, however would make it a modifier of as. Just as=_just at the time at which_. Just here modifies at the time. At the time is represented in the diagram by the first element of the as line.

The +adverb clause+ may express +place+.

7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. 8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever he could find it. 9. The wind bloweth where it listeth.

The +adverb clause+ may express +degree+.

10. Washington was as good as he was great.

+Explanation+.—The adverb clause as he was great modifies the first as, which is an adverb modifying good. The first as, modified by the adverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree? The second as modifies great and performs the office of a conjunction, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding as … as into two phrases, we have, Washington was good in the degree in which he was great. See diagram of (3) and of (20).

11. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. [Footnote: The, here, is not the ordinary adjective the. It is the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative pronoun used in an instrumental sense. It is here an adverb. The first the = by how much, and modifies wiser; the second the = by so much, and modifies humbler.]

+Explanation+.—The words the … the are similar in office to as … as—He became humbler in that degree in which he became wiser.

12. Gold is heavier than iron.

Gold | is heavier =======|============== | ` than ` iron | x x ––-|–––––

+Explanation+.—_Heavier_ = heavy beyond the degree, and than = in which. The sentence = Gold is heavy beyond the degree in which iron is heavy. Is and heavy are omitted. Frequently words are omitted after than and as. Than modifies heavy (understood) and connects the clause expressing degree to heavier, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb.

13. To be right is better than to be president.

+Explanation+.—To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be president (would be good).

14. It was so cold that the mercury froze. [Footnote: In this sentence, also in (15) and (17), the dependent clause is sometimes termed a clause of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different logical relations, and cannot always be classed under Degree.]

+Explanation+.—The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced. The adverb so, modified by the adverb clause that the mercury froze, answers the question, Cold to what degree? The sentence = It was cold to that degree in which the mercury froze. That, as you see, modifies froze and connects the clauses; it is therefore a conjunctive adverb.

15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury.

+Explanation+.—It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate or require).

16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for it. 17. He called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded. 18. To preach is easier than to practice. 19. One’s breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion. [Footnote: For the use of he instead of the indefinite pronoun one repeated, see Lesson 124.] 20. The oftener I see it, the better I like it.

I | like | it =====|=========== | -– better the … ` ` I | ` see | it –-|—`––––— ` `The `…..oftener

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LESSON 64.

ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED.

+Introductory Hints+.—_He lived as the fool lives_. The adverb clause, introduced by as, is a clause of +Manner+, and is equivalent to the adverb foolishly or to the phrase in a foolish manner.

The ground is wet because it has rained. The adverb clause, introduced by because, assigns the +Real Cause+ of the ground’s being wet.

It has rained, for the ground is wet. The adverb clause, introduced by for, does not assign the cause of the raining, but the cause of our believing that it has rained; it gives the +Evidence+ of what is asserted. [Footnote: Evidence should be carefully distinguished from Cause. Cause produces an effect; Evidence produces knowledge of an effect.

Clauses of Evidence are sometimes treated as independent.]

Analysis.

The +adverb clause+ may express +manner+.

1. He died as he lived.

+Explanation+.—He died in the manner in which he lived. For diagram, see (1), Lesson 63.

2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 3. As the upright man thinks so he speaks.

(For diagram of as … so, see when … then (3), Lesson 63.)

4. As is the boy so will be the man. 5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore.

The +adverb clause+ may express +real cause+.

6. The ground is wet because it has rained.

ground | is wet ==========|============= The | ` ` ` because ` it | ` has rained –-|–––––

+Explanation+.—_Because_, being a mere conjunction, stands on a line wholly dotted.

7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking. 8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood throws off its impurities. 9. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, wise people ventilate their sleeping rooms. 10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it combines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits. 11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made from its flour.

The +adverb clause+ may express +evidence+.

12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew them in the wilderness. 13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh found them here. 14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning. 15. We Americans must all be cuckoos, for we build our homes in the nests of other birds.

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LESSON 65.

ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED.

+Introductory Hints+.—_If it rains, the ground will be wet_. The adverb clause, introduced by if, assigns what, if it occurs, will be the cause of the ground’s being wet, but, as here expressed, is only a +Condition+ ready to become a cause.

He takes exercise that he may get well. The adverb clause, introduced by that, assigns the cause or the motive or the +Purpose+ of his exercising.

The ground is dry, although it has rained. The adverb clause, introduced by although, expresses a +Concession+. It is conceded that a cause for the ground’s not being dry exists; but, in spite of this opposing cause, it is asserted that the ground is dry.

All these dependent clauses of real cause, evidence, condition, purpose, and concession come, as you see, under the general head of +Cause+, although only the first kind assigns the cause proper.

Analysis.

The +adverb clause+ may express +condition+.

1. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to produce combustion. 2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always use prose. (Unless = if not.) 3. If ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him, you have an image of a dull speaker and a lively listener. 4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors and the rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part of the year.

+Explanation+.—The relative position of the subject and the verb renders the if unnecessary. This omission of if is a common idiom.

5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is thrown into the grate to keep the furnace in play.

The +adverb clause+ may express +purpose+.

6. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each other.

+Explanation+.—That, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere conjunction.

7. Spiders have many eyes in order that they may see in many directions at one time.

+Explanation+.—The phrases in order that, so that = that.

8. The ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez was dug so that European vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Orient. 9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains them dissolved in