Author: M. C. Stopes
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give off the oxygen. So that we see that plants use the carbon in the air as well as the salts dissolved in the water of the soil as raw materials, with which they finally build up their food. We must now try to find what food substance it is that they build up from these raw materials.

CHAPTER VI.
THE FOOD MANUFACTURED BY THE PLANT

You will remember that much of the food provided in the nurse leaves consisted of starch, and that the baby plants use this food as they grow.

In the full grown plant we also find much starch; in fact, nearly all the parts of plants which we eat as food contain large quantities of starch, as you can test with iodine in potatoes, turnips, radishes, oatmeal, flour, and a host of our other vegetable foods. This is also the case in many parts of plants which we do not generally use as food, for example, in the lily and tulip bulbs, underground stems of Solomon’s Seal, and the stems and leaves of most plants. So that we find that the food grains of starch are developed in grown plants, and are not only provided for the young ones.

What is starch made of? Try heating a piece of laundry starch on an iron plate or the bars of the grate, and you will see that it blackens, and finally, if you put a light to it, may burn. If you simply heat it without quite burning it, you will find that it chars and goes black like a piece of charcoal. The solid element of starch is carbon. Now you may remember that in the plant growing under the bell-jar from which we shut out all the carbonic acid gas, we found that the leaves did not show any starch (see p. 20). The plant had not been able to build up starch without the carbon obtained from the air.

The leaves of a plant are spread out in the sunshine and air, and it is in the leaves that we get the starch first formed. The leaves, in fact, are the food factories of the plant. You should study the appearance of starch in the leaves. As their green colour hides the iodine colouration, it is better first to remove it from any leaves you are studying in the following manner. So soon after picking them as possible, throw them on to some very hot or boiling water for a moment. This kills them quickly and makes them soft; then put them in a jar or tube of alcohol,[4] and leave them in it overnight. By next day the green colour should be gone, having been absorbed out of the tissues by the alcohol, and the leaves left yellowish or white. Then put them to soak in water till the stiffness caused by the alcohol has gone, when you should add the iodine. If you examine ordinary leaves in this way you will find that they go violet or brownish blue, showing that they contain starch.

Now do leaves always contain starch? You will remember that the oxygen bubbles were given off much more quickly from the plants in the sunlight than from those in the dark (see p. 21). This shows that the leaves in the sunlight split up the carbonic acid gas more quickly than the others, which would give them more carbon to work on, and therefore it seems that they should be able to build up more starch in the light than in dull weather or darkness. You can see if this is true by doing a simple experiment.

Fig. 14. Leaf partly covered with cork sheets, A, and place in sunny position (compare Fig. 15).

If you take a leaf growing in the sunlight, and cover a portion of it, leaving the rest exposed, you will be able to see the effect of light and darkness on the starch-building powers of this particular leaf. To do this use two flat pieces of cork or thick cardboard, covered with silver paper or tin foil about 1 in. to 1½ in. big, and of the same size and shape. Place a part of a healthy leaf between them and bind them tightly together, as in fig. 14. If the weight of the cork makes the leaf bend down out of the full sunlight, then support it so that it lies in a position where it is well lighted. Leave it untouched for three days, and then in the middle of a bright day cut the leaf from the tree, remove the cork when you get into the house, and immediately treat it as described above for the iodine test. You will find that the part of the leaf which was exposed shows a good violet colour, proving that starch is present there, while the part which was covered is only yellowish, showing that starch has not been developed in this portion (see fig. 15). This proves that the covered part of the leaf could not build starch, so that exposure to the light and air seems to be necessary, as we expected. This further suggests that it is only in the daytime that the plant can build starch. You can see that this is actually the case by testing leaves from the same tree at different times of the day and comparing the starch in them. For example, test a leaf from a certain plant in the early afternoon, when it has been exposed all day to good sunlight, and compare it with one which is gathered just before sunrise, if you can get up so soon (this is, of course, easier in the spring or autumn, when the sun does not rise so early as in midsummer). You will find that the leaves picked in the early afternoon are packed with starch, while those picked before the day begins show very little or none.

Fig. 15. Same leaf as in Fig. 14 treated with iodine. It shows that the covered part had formed no starch.

What then becomes of the starch during the night?

You will remember that we found much starch in potatoes, which you know grow right underground, and therefore, according to the experiments we have just done, should not contain starch. But it is found that the starch is made in the leaves through the day, and is slowly carried down the stems in solution, and then stored (not made) in the underground parts, such as bulbs, potatoes, thick roots, and many others. It is like the shopkeeper, who collects some money each day and sends it every evening to the bank to be stored for him.

The leaves of the plant are then fresh next day to begin the work of building up more starch.

Fig. 16. Striped leaves; the white stripes show no starch when stained with iodine.

One of the great contrasts between the leaves in the air, and the parts of the plant underground, is that the leaves are bright green in colour, and the underground parts are yellowish or brown. It has been found that the green colour in leaves is very important in the building up of the starch. You can see this in the case of leaves which have parts quite colourless, as in those which are variegated or striped. Take the leaves of such a plant, which have been exposed to a good light, and test them in the usual way for starch. You will find that the pale stripes of the leaf show no colour with iodine, because they are empty of starch, owing to the fact that the green colour was not there to build it up. The value of the green colour is that it absorbs the energy of the sunlight, and uses it to get the carbon from the carbonic acid gas, and then to build the carbon into starch.

Now you will remember in doing the experiments on the food solutions (see p. 17), that one of the plants lost its green colour, turned yellowish, and finally died. That was the plant which had no iron in its food solution. We have found, therefore, that without iron a plant cannot build up its green colour, and without its green colour it cannot use the store of carbon in the air to build up its food. This is only one example of the importance of mineral salts to the plant. Salts containing nitrogen are equally vital, while a number of mineral compounds are necessary for healthy growth. So that we see that the minerals absorbed in solution by the roots, as well as the carbonic acid gas absorbed from the air by the leaves, and the energy of light absorbed by the green colour are all equally necessary to the life of the plant, as all help in the building up of its food.

We have now seen that plants require food just as much as animals do; but that they use different and simpler elements from which they build it up for themselves, unlike the animals, which require their starchy foods to be ready built up for them. The foods which plants make they use in growing, and the other activities of their lives, just as animals do.

CHAPTER VII.
THE CIRCULATION OF WATER

As we have already found out, water is one of the things which are necessary for the well-being of plants. Seedlings can begin to sprout only when they are well supplied with it, and in the growing plant it is the water in the cells which keeps it firm and fresh. Directly the plant is deprived of some of its water it becomes limp and flabby, and “withers.” We noticed in Chapter IV. that the rootlets absorb the water (with its salts contained in solution) from the soil, and from them it travels all over the plant. The salts dissolved in water, however, are in very weak solution, and to provide the plant with sufficient of them for its growth it is necessary that a continuous stream of water should enter the plant. How is this stream kept up?

Fig. 17. Experiment to show that leaves give off water. Notice the drops collecting in the tube, which is closed with cotton-wool.

The leaves play a very important part in the water circulation, their thin expanded surfaces giving a large area from which the evaporation of water can take place. The water which comes off from them is not generally visible to us, because it comes off as vapour. However, you can easily make experiments which will show you that it actually does come off from the leaves.

Take a large test tube or a small glass flask, and place it over a good-sized fresh green leaf, which you leave attached to a healthy plant or a branch in water. Round the leaf-stalk wrap cotton wool till it fits like a cork in the neck of the flask, so that it shuts the leaf into the vessel, leaving no communication with the outer air, and at the same time does not injure it in any way (see fig. 17). Very soon, even after an hour or two, you will find a misty appearance inside the glass, and this will settle gradually in the form of drops of water which collect together and run down the sides of the flask. You do not see all this water coming off from the leaf under ordinary conditions because it goes into the air as invisible vapour, but when it is given off continually into a closed space the air soon gets saturated with all it can hold, and the rest must form liquid drops which we can

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