The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species by Charles Robert Darwin (rainbow fish read aloud txt) 📕

of which only one turned out long-styled, four mid-styled, and seven short-styled.
Two plants of each form were protected from the access of insects during two successive years, and in the autumn they yielded very few capsules and presented a remarkable contrast with the adjoining uncovered plants, which were densely covered with capsules. In 1863 a protected long-styled plant produced only five poor capsules; two mid-styled plants produced together the same number; and two short-styled plants only a single one. These capsules contained very few seeds; yet the plants were fully productive when artificially fertilised under the net. In a state of nature the flowers are incessantly visited for their nectar by hive- and other bees, various Diptera and Lepidoptera. (4/3. H. Muller gives a list of the species 'Die Befruchtung der Blumen' page 196. It appears that one bee, the Cilissa melanura, almost confines its visits to this plant.) The nectar is secreted all round the base of the ovarium; but a passage is formed along the upper and inner side of the flower by the lateral deflection (not represented in the diagram) of the basal portions of the filaments; so that insects invariably alight on the projecting stamens and pistil, and insert their proboscides along the upper and inner margin of the corolla. We can now see why the ends of the stamens with their anthers, and the ends of the pistils with their stigmas, are a little upturned, so that they may be brushed by the lower hairy surfaces of the insects' bodies. The shortest stamens which lie enclosed within the calyx of the long- and mid-styled forms can be touched only by the proboscis and narrow chin of a bee; hence they have their ends more upturned, and they are graduated in length, so as to fall into a narrow file, sure to be raked by the thin intruding proboscis. The anthers of the longer stamens stand laterally farther apart and are more nearly on the same level, for they have to brush against the whole breadth of the insect's body. In very many other flowers the pistil, or the stamens, or both, are rectangularly bent to one side of the flower. This bending may be permanent, as with Lythrum and many others, or may be effected, as in Dictamnus fraxinella and others, by a temporary movement, which occurs in the case of the stamens when the anthers dehisce, and in the case of the pistil when the stigma is mature; but these two movements do not always take place simultaneously in the same flower. Now I have found no exception to the rule, that when the stamens and pistil are bent, they bend to that side of the flower which secretes nectar, even though there be a rudimentary nectary of large size on the opposite side, as in some species of Corydalis. When nectar is secreted on all sides, they bend to that side where the structure of the flower allows the easiest access to it, as in Lythrum, various Papilionaceae, and others. The rule consequently is, that when the pistils and stamens are curved or bent, the stigma and anthers are thus brought into the pathway leading to the nectary. There are a few cases which seem to be exceptions to this rule, but they are not so in truth; for instance, in the Gloriosa lily, the stigma of the grotesque and rectangularly bent pistil is brought, not into any pathway from the outside towards the nectar-secreting recesses of the flower, but into the circular route which insects follow in proceeding from one nectary to the other. In Scrophularia aquatica the pistil is bent downwards from the mouth of the corolla, but it thus strikes the pollen-dusted breast of the wasps which habitually visit these ill-scented flowers. In all these cases we see the supreme dominating power of insects on the structure of flowers, especially of those which have irregular corollas. Flowers which are fertilised by the wind must of course be excepted; but I do not know of a single instance of an irregular flower which is thus fertilised.
Another point deserves notice. In each of the three forms two sets of stamens correspond in length with the pistils in the other two forms. When bees suck the flowers, the anthers of the longest stamens, bearing the green pollen, are rubbed against the abdomen and the inner sides of the hind legs, as is likewise the stigma of the long-styled form. The anthers of the mid-length stamens and the stigma of the mid-styled form are rubbed against the under side of the thorax and between the front pair of legs. And, lastly, the anthers of the shortest stamens and the stigma of the short-styled form are rubbed against the proboscis and chin: for the bees in sucking the flowers insert only the front part of their heads into the flower. On catching bees, I observed much green pollen on the inner sides of the hind legs and on the abdomen, and much yellow pollen on the under side of the thorax. There was also pollen on the chin, and, it may be presumed, on the proboscis, but this was difficult to observe. I had, however, independent proof that pollen is carried on the proboscis; for a small branch of a protected short-styled plant (which produced spontaneously only two capsules) was accidentally left during several days pressing against the net, and bees were seen inserting their proboscides through the meshes, and in consequence numerous capsules were formed on this one small branch. From these several facts it follows that insects will generally carry the pollen of each form from the stamens to the pistil of corresponding length; and we shall presently see the importance of this adaptation. It must not, however, be supposed that the bees do not get more or less dusted all over with the several kinds of pollen; for this could be seen to occur with the green pollen from the longest stamens. Moreover a case will presently be given of a long-styled plant producing an abundance of capsules, though growing quite by itself, and the flowers must have been fertilised by their own kinds of pollen; but these capsules contained a very poor average of seed. Hence insects, and chiefly bees, act both as general carriers of pollen, and as special carriers of the right sort.
Wirtgen remarks on the variability of this plant in the branching of the stem, in the length of the bracteae, size of the petals, and in several other characters. (4/4. 'Verhand. des naturhist. Vereins fur Pr. Rheinl.' 5 Jahrgang 1848 pages 11, 13.) The plants which grew in my garden had their leaves, which differed much in shape, arranged oppositely, alternately, or in whorls of three. In this latter case the stems were hexagonal; those of the other plants being quadrangular. But we are concerned chiefly, with the reproductive organs: the upward bending of the pistil is variable, and especially in the short-styled form, in which it is sometimes straight, sometimes slightly curved, but generally bent at right angles. The stigma of the long-styled pistil frequently has longer papillae or is rougher than that of the mid-styled, and the latter than that of the short-styled; but this character, though fixed and uniform in the two forms of Primula veris, etc., is here variable, for I have seen mid- styled stigmas rougher than those of the long-styled. (4/5. The plants which I observed grew in my garden, and probably varied rather more than those growing in a state of nature. H. Muller has described the stigmas of all three forms with great care, and he appears to have found the stigmatic papillae differing constantly in length and structure in the three forms, being longest in the long-styled form.) The degree to which the longest and mid-length stamens are graduated in length and have their ends upturned is variable; sometimes all are equally long. The colour of the green pollen in the longest stamens is variable, being sometimes pale greenish-yellow; in one short-styled plant it was almost white. The grains vary a little in size: I examined one short-styled plant with the grains from the mid-length and shortest anthers of the same size. We here see great variability in many important characters; and if any of these variations were of service to the plant, or were correlated with useful functional differences, the species is in that state in which natural selection might readily do much for its modification.


ON THE POWER OF MUTUAL FERTILISATION BETWEEN THE THREE FORMS.
Nothing shows more clearly the extraordinary complexity of the reproductive system of this plant, than the necessity of making eighteen distinct unions in order to ascertain the relative fertilising power of the three forms. Thus the long-styled form has to be fertilised with pollen from its own two kinds of anthers, from the two in the mid-styled, and from the two in the short-styled form. The same process has to be repeated with the mid-styled and short-styled forms. It might have been thought sufficient to have tried on each stigma the green pollen, for instance, from either the mid- or short-styled longest stamens, and not from both; but the result proves that this would have been insufficient, and that it was necessary to try all six kinds of pollen on each stigma. As in fertilising flowers there will always be some failures, it would have been advisable to have repeated each of the eighteen unions a score of times; but the labour would have been too great; as it was, I made 223 unions, i.e. on an average I fertilised above a dozen flowers in the eighteen different methods. Each flower was castrated; the adjoining buds had to be removed, so that the flowers might be safely marked with thread, wool, etc.; and after each fertilisation the stigma was examined with a lens to see that there was sufficient pollen on it. Plants of all three forms were protected during two years by large nets on a framework; two plants were used during one or both years, in order to avoid any individual peculiarity in a particular plant. As soon as the flowers had withered, the nets were removed; and in the autumn the capsules were daily inspected and gathered, the ripe seeds being counted under the microscope. I have given these details that confidence may be placed in the following tables, and as some excuse for two blunders which, I believe, were made. These blunders are referred to, with their probable cause, in two footnotes to the tables. The erroneous numbers, however, are entered in the tables, that it may not be supposed that I have in any one instance tampered with the results.
A few words explanatory of the three tables must be given. Each is devoted to one of the three forms, and is divided into six compartments. The two upper ones in each table show the number of good seeds resulting from the application to the stigma of pollen from the two sets of stamens which correspond in length with the pistil of that form, and which are borne by the other two forms. Such unions are of a legitimate nature. The two next lower compartments show the result of the application of pollen from the two sets of stamens, not corresponding in length with the pistil, and which are borne by the other two forms. These unions are illegitimate. The two lowest compartments show the result of the application of each form's own two kinds of pollen from the two sets of stamens belonging to the same form, and which do not equal the pistil in length. These unions are likewise illegitimate. The term own-form pollen here used does not mean pollen from the flower to be fertilised--for this was never used--but from another flower on the same plant, or more commonly from a distinct plant of the same form. The