The Astronomy of Milton's 'Paradise Lost' by Thomas Nathaniel Orchard (easy books to read in english TXT) 📕

The description of the various kinds of nebulæ leads us to consider what is called the Nebular Hypothesis. That the stars and solar system had at some time in the past a beginning, is as much a matter of certainty as that they will at some future time cease to be. Stars, like organic beings, have their birth, grow and arrive at maturity, then decline into a state of decrepitude, and finally die out. The duration of the life of a star, which may be reckoned by millions of years, depends upon the length of time during which it can maintain a temperature that renders it capable of emitting light. By the constant radiation of its heat into space, a condition of its constituent particles consequent upon the gradual contraction of its mass will ultimately occur, which will result in the exhaustion of its stores of thermal energy, the extinction of its light, and the reduction of what was once a brilliant orb to the condition of a mass of cold, opaque, inert matter. Inquiries as to the origin of the stars have led scientific men to conclude that they have been evolved from gaseous nebulæ, and these have therefore been regarded as indicating the earliest stage in the formation of suns and planets. It is believed that the condensation of those attenuated masses of luminous matter into stars is capable of accounting for the generation and formation of all the shining orbs which enter into the structure of the starry heavens. In the evolution of a ‘cosmos out of a chaos’ we should expect to find stars presenting every stage of development—some in an embryo state and others more advanced; stars in full vigour and activity, stars that have passed the meridian of life, and stars in a condition of decay and on the verge of extinction. The observations of astronomers have led them to conclude that this condition of ‘youth and age’ exists among the stellar multitude; but the characteristics by which it is distinguished are neither very obvious nor reliable.

The nebular theory is incapable of proof or demonstration; but modern discoveries tend to support the accuracy of its conclusions, and its principles have now been adopted by the majority of philosophic thinkers. The physical changes which are going on in the nebulæ towards stellar evolution, or in fully formed stars towards dissolution, are so slow that the life of an individual, or even the historical records of the past, are incapable of furnishing any evidence of alteration in their condition. A period of time infinitely greater than what has elapsed since the birth of science must pass before anything can be known of the life history of the stars; indeed, the allotted span of man’s existence on this planet may have terminated ere the evolution of a large nebula into a star cluster can have taken place.

The nebular hypothesis was first propounded by Kant, who suggested that the sun and planets originated from a vast and diffused mass of cosmical matter. This theory was afterwards supported by Herschel and by the great French astronomer Laplace. As a result of close and continued observation of the different classes of nebulæ, Herschel arrived at the conclusion that there exists in space a widely diffused ‘shining fluid,’ of a nature totally unknown to us, and that the nebulosity which he perceived to surround some stars was not of a starry nature. He further adds that this self-luminous matter ‘seemed more fit to produce a star by its condensation than to depend on the star for its existence.’ His sagacious conclusion with regard to the non-stellar nature of this nebulous matter was afterwards confirmed by the spectroscope; for at that time it was believed that even the faintest nebulæ were irresolvable star clusters.

In 1811 Herschel read a paper before the Royal Society in which he propounded his famous nebular hypothesis, and stated his reasons for believing that nebulæ, by their gradual condensation, were transformed into stars. Having assumed that there exists a highly attenuated self-luminous substance diffused over vast regions of space, he endeavoured to show that by the law of attraction its particles would have a tendency to coalesce and form aggregations of nebulous matter, and that each of these, by the continued action of the same force, would gradually condense and ultimately acquire the consistence of a star. In the case of large irregular nebulæ, numerous centres of attraction would originate in the mass, round which the nebulous particles of matter would arrange themselves; each nucleus, when condensation had been completed, would become a star, and the entire nebula would in this manner be transformed into a cluster of stars. Herschel believed that he could trace the different stages of nebular condensation which result in the evolution of a star. In large, faintly luminous nebulæ the process of condensation had only commenced; in others that were smaller and brighter it was in a more advanced stage; in those that contained nuclei there was evidence of nascent stars; and, finally, there could be seen in some nebulæ minute stellar points—new-born suns—interspersed among the haze of the transforming mass. By this theory Herschel was able to account for the phenomena associated with nebulous stars and the supposed changes which were observed in some nebulæ. The nebular hypothesis as described by Herschel was not received with much favour, nor did it unsettle much the belief that all nebulæ were vast stellar aggregations, and that their cloudy luminosity was a consequence of the inadequacy of telescopic power to resolve them into their component stars. Laplace, who was highly gifted as a geometrician, demonstrated how the solar system could have been evolved in accordance with dynamical principles from a slowly rotating and slowly contracting spheroidal nebula. The rotatory motion of a nebula, in obedience to a well-known mechanical law, increases as its density becomes greater, and this goes on until the tangential force at the equator overcomes the gravitational attraction at its centre. When this occurs, a revolving ring of nebulous matter is thrown off from the parent mass, and by this means equilibrium is restored between the two forces. As the rotatory velocity of the nebula continues to increase with its contraction, another ring is cast off, and in this manner a succession of revolving rings may be detached from the condensing spheroid; each newly-formed ring being nearer to the centre of the contracting mass and revolving in a shorter period than its predecessor. In the evolution of our system, the central mass of the nebula became the Sun and each of the revolving rings, by their condensation into one mass, formed a planet. In a similar manner, though on a diminished scale, the elementary planets, whilst in a nebulous state, parted with annular portions of their substance, out of which were evolved their systems of satellites. This theory furnished a plausible reason, which was capable of explaining how the orbs which constitute the solar system came into existence, and, though hypothetical, yet the manner in which it accounted for the orderly and symmetrical genesis of the system rendered it attractive and fascinating to scientific minds.

The evidence in support of the nebulous origin of the solar system, if not conclusive, is of much weight and importance. The remarkable harmony with which the orbs of the system perform their motions is strongly indicative of their common origin and that their evolution occurred in subordination to the law of universal gravitation. The following are the characteristic points in favour of this theory:—

1. All the planets revolve round the Sun in the same direction, and they all occupy nearly the same plane.

2. Their satellites, with the exception of those of Uranus and Neptune, perform their revolutions in obedience to the same law.

3. The rotation on their axes of the Sun, planets, and satellites is in the same direction as their orbital motion.

Between the