The Evolution of Man, vol 2 by Ernst Haeckel (fun books to read for adults TXT) 📕

(FIGURE 2.290. Human embryo, three months old, natural size, from the dorsal side: brain and spinal cord exposed. (From Kolliker.) h cerebral hemispheres (fore brain), m corpora quadrigemina (middle brain), c cerebellum (hind brain): under the latter is the triangular medulla oblongata (after brain).

FIGURE 2.291. Central marrow of a human embryo, four months old, natural size, from the back. (From Kolliker.) h large hemispheres, v quadrigemina, c cerebellum, mo medulla oblongata: underneath it the spinal cord.)

In order to understand them fully we must first say a word or two of the general form and the anatomic composition of the mature human central marrow. Like the central nervous system of all the other Craniotes, it consists of two parts, the head-marrow or brain (medulla capitis or encephalon) and the spinal-marrow (medulla spinalis or notomyelon). The one is enclosed in the bony skull, the other in the bony vertebral column. Twelve pairs of cerebral nerves proceed from the brain, and thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves from the spinal cord, to the rest of the body (Figure 1.171). On general anatomic investigation the spinal marrow is found to be a cylindrical cord, with a spindle-shaped bulb both in the region of the neck above (at the last cervical vertebra) and the region of the loins (at the first lumbar vertebra) below (Figure 2.291). At the cervical bulb the strong nerves of the upper limbs, and at the lumbar bulb those of the lower limbs, proceed from the spinal cord. Above, the latter passes into the brain through the medulla oblongata (Figure 2.291 mo). The spinal cord seems to be a thick mass of nervous matter, but it has a narrow canal at its axis, which passes into the further cerebral ventricles above, and is filled, like these, with a clear fluid.

The brain is a large nerve-mass, occupying the greater part of the skull, of most elaborate structure. On general examination it divides into two parts, the cerebrum and cerebellum. The cerebrum lies in front and above, and has the familiar characteristic convolutions and furrows on its surface (Figures 2.292 and 2.293). On the upper side it is divided by a deep longitudinal fissure into two halves, the cerebral hemispheres; these are connected by the corpus callosum. The large cerebrum is separated from the small cerebellum by a deep transverse furrow. The latter lies behind and below, and has also numbers of furrows, but much finer and more regular, with convolutions between, at its surface. The cerebellum also is divided by a longitudinal fissure into two halves, the “small hemispheres”; these are connected by a worm-shaped piece, the vermis cerebelli, above, and by the broad pons Varolii below (Figure 2.292 VI).

(FIGURE 2.292. The human brain, seen from below. (From H. Meyer.) Above (in front) is the cerebrum with its extensive branching furrows; below (behind) the cerebellum with its narrow parallel furrows. The Roman numbers I to XII indicate the roots of the twelve pairs of cerebral nerves in a series towards the rear.)

But comparative anatomy and ontogeny teach us that in man and all the other Craniotes the brain is at first composed, not of these two, but of three, and afterwards five, consecutive parts. These are found in just the same form—as five consecutive vesicles—in the embryo of all the Craniotes, from the Cyclostoma and fishes to man. But, however much they agree in their rudimentary condition, they differ considerably afterwards. In man and the higher mammals the first of these ventricles, the cerebrum, grows so much that in its mature condition it is by far the largest and heaviest part of the brain. To it belong not only the large hemispheres, but also the corpus callosum that unites them, the olfactory lobes, from which the olfactory nerves start, and most of the structures that are found at the roof and bottom of the large lateral ventricles inside the two hemispheres, such as the corpora striata. On the other hand, the optic thalami, which lie between the latter, belong to the second division, which develops from the “intermediate brain “; to the same section belong the single third cerebral ventricle and the structures that are known as the corpora geniculata, the infundibulum, and the pineal gland. Behind these parts we find, between the cerebrum and cerebellum, a small ganglion composed of two prominences, which is called the corpus quadrigeminum on account of a superficial transverse fissure cutting across (Figures 2.290 m and 2.291 v). Although this quadrigeminum is very insignificant in man and the higher mammals, it forms a special third section, greatly developed in the lower vertebrates, the “middle brain.” The fourth section is the “hind-brain” or little brain (cerebellum) in the narrower sense, with the single median part, the vermis, and the pair of lateral parts, the “small hemispheres” (Figure 2.291 c). Finally, we have the fifth and last section, the medulla oblongata (Figure 2.291 mo), which contains the single fourth cerebral cavity and the contiguous parts (pyramids, olivary bodies, corpora restiformia). The medulla oblongata passes straight into the medulla spinalis (spinal cord). The narrow central canal of the spinal cord continues above into the quadrangular fourth cerebral cavity of the medulla oblongata, the floor of which is the quadrangular depression. From here a narrow duct, called “the aqueduct of Sylvius,” passes through the corpus quadrigeminum to the third cerebral ventricle, which lies between the two optic thalami; and this in turn is connected with the pairs of lateral ventricles which lie to the right and left in the large hemispheres. Thus all the cavities of the central marrow are directly interconnected. All these parts of the brain have an infinitely complex structure in detail, but we cannot go into this. Although it is much more elaborate in man and the higher Vertebrates than in the lower classes, it develops in them all from the same rudimentary structure, the five simple cerebral vesicles of the embryonic brain.

But before we consider the development of the complicated structure of the brain from this simple series of vesicles, let us glance for a moment at the lower animals, which have no brain. Even in the skull-less vertebrate, the Amphioxus, we find no independent brain, as we have seen. The whole central marrow is merely a simple cylindrical cord which runs the length of the body, and ends equally simply at both extremities—a plain medullary tube. All that we can discover is a small vesicular bulb at the foremost part of the tube, a degenerate rudiment of a primitive brain. We meet the same simple medullary tube in the first structure of the ascidia larva, in the same characteristic position, above the chorda. On closer examination we find here also a small vesicular swelling at the fore end of the tube, the first trace of a differentiation of it into brain and spinal cord. It is probable that this differentiation was more advanced in the extinct Provertebrates, and the brain-bulb more pronounced (Figures 1.98 to 1.102). The brain is phylogenetically older than the spinal cord, as the trunk was not developed until after the head. If we consider the undeniable affinity of the Ascidiae to the Vermalia, and remember that we can trace all the Chordonia to lower Vermalia, it seems probable that the simple central marrow of the former is equivalent to the simple nervous ganglion, which lies above the gullet in the lower worms, and has long been known as the “upper pharyngeal ganglion” (ganglion pharyngeum superius); it would be better to call it the primitive or vertical brain (acroganglion).

Probably this upper pharyngeal ganglion of the lower worms is the structure from which the complex central marrow of the higher animals has been evolved. The medullary tube of the Chordonia has been formed by the lengthening of the vertical brain on the dorsal side. In all the other animals the central nervous system has been developed in a totally different way from the upper pharyngeal ganglion; in the Articulates, especially, a pharyngeal ring, with ventral marrow, has been added. The Molluscs also have a pharyngeal ring, but it is not found in the Vertebrates. In these the central marrow has been prolonged down the dorsal side; in the Articulates down the ventral side. This fact proves of itself that there is no direct relationship between the Vertebrates and the Articulates. The unfortunate attempts to derive the dorsal marrow of the former from the ventral marrow of the latter have totally failed (cf. Chapter 2.20).

(FIGURE 2.293. The human brain, seen from the left. (From H. Meyer.) The furrows of the cerebrum are indicated by thick, and those of the cerebellum by finer lines. Under the latter we can see the medulla oblongata. f1 to f2 frontal convolutions, C central convolutions, S fissure of Sylvius, T temporal furrow, Pa parietal lobes, An angular gyrus, Po parieto-occipital fissure.)

When we examine the embryology of the human nervous system, we must start from the important fact, which we have already seen, that the first structure of it in man and all the higher Vertebrates is the simple medullary tube, and that this separates from the outer germinal layer in the middle line of the sole-shaped embryonic shield. As the reader will remember, the straight medullary furrow first appears in the middle of the sandal-shaped embryonic shield. At each side of it the parallel borders curve over in the form of dorsal or medullary swellings. These bend together with their free borders, and thus form the closed medullary tube (Figures 1.133 to 1.137). At first this tube lies directly underneath the horny plate; but it afterwards travels inwards, the upper edges of the provertebral plates growing together between the horny plate and the tube, joining above the latter, and forming a completely closed canal. As Gegenbaur very properly observes, “this gradual imbedding in the inner part of the body is a process acquired with the progressive differentiation and the higher potentiality that this secures; by this process the organ of greater value to the organism is buried within the frame.” (Cf. Figures 1.143 to 1.146).

(FIGURES 2.294 TO 2.296. Central marrow of the human embryo from the seventh week, 4/5 inch long. (From Kolliker.)

FIGURE 2.294. The brain from above, v fore brain, z intermediate brain, m middle brain, h hind brain, n after brain.

FIGURE 2.295. The brain with the uppermost part of the cord, from the left.

FIGURE 2.296. Back view of the whole embryo: brain and spinal cord exposed.)

In the Cyclostoma—a stage above the Acrania—the fore end of the cylindrical medullary tube begins early to expand into a pear-shaped vesicle; this is the first outline of an independent brain. In this way the central marrow of the Vertebrates divides clearly into its two chief sections, brain and spinal cord. The simple vesicular form of the brain, which persists for some time in the Cyclostoma, is found also at first in all the higher Vertebrates (Figure 1.153 hb). But in these it soon passes away, the one vesicle being divided into several successive parts by transverse constrictions. There are first two of these constrictions, dividing the brain into three consecutive vesicles (fore brain, middle brain, and hind brain, Figure 1.154 v, m, h). Then the first and third are subdivided by fresh constrictions, and thus we get five successive sections (Figure 1.155).

In all the Craniotes, from the Cyclostoma up to man, the same parts develop from these five original cerebral vesicles, though in very different ways. The first vesicle, the fore brain (Figure 1.155 v), forms by far the largest part of the cerebrum—namely, the large hemispheres, the olfactory lobes, the corpora striata, the callosum, and the fornix. From the second vesicle, the intermediate brain (z), originate especially the optic thalami, the other parts that