The Power of Movement in Plants by Charles Darwin (best fiction books to read TXT) 📕

vulgare.—Analogous trials were made on 8 radicles of the common wheat; and greasing their tips produced much less effect than in the case of the oats. After 22 h., 5 of them had come into contact with the bottom of the sieve; 2 had moved towards it 10o and 15o, and one alone remained perpendicular. Not one of the very numerous ungreased radicles failed to come into close contact with the sieve. These trials were made on Nov.

28th, when the temperature was only 4.8o C. at 10 A.M. We should hardly have thought this case worth notice, had it not been for the following circumstance. In the beginning of October, when the temperature was considerably higher, viz., 12o to 13o C., we found that only a few of the ungreased radicles became bent towards the sieve; and this indicates that sensitiveness to moisture in the air is increased by a low temperature, as we have seen with the radicles of Vicia faba relatively to objects attached to their tips. But in the present instance it is possible that a difference in the dryness

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of the air may have caused the difference in the results at the two periods.]

 

Finally, the facts just given with respect to Phaseolus multiflorus, Vicia faba, and Avena sativa show, as it seems to us, that a layer of grease spread for a length of 1 � to 2 mm. over the tip of the radicle, or the destruction of the tip by caustic, greatly lessens or quite annuls in the upper and exposed part the power of bending towards a neighbouring source of moisture. We should bear in mind that the part which bends most, lies at some little distance above the greased or cauterised tip; and that the rapid growth of this part, proves that it has not been injured by the tips having been thus treated. In those cases in which the radicles with greased tips became curved, it is possible that the layer of grease was not sufficiently thick wholly to exclude moisture, or that a sufficient length was not thus protected, or, in the case of the caustic, not destroyed. When radicles with greased tips are left to grow for several days in damp air, the grease is drawn out into the finest reticulated threads and dots, with narrow portions of the surface left clean. Such portions would, it is probable, be able to absorb moisture, and thus we can account for several of the radicles with greased tips having become curved towards the sieve after an interval of one or two days. On the whole, we may infer that sensitiveness to a difference in the amount of moisture in the air on the two sides of a radicle resides in the tip, which transmits some influence to the upper part, causing it to bend towards the source of moisture.

Consequently, the movement is the reverse of that caused by objects attached to one side of the tip, or by a thin slice being cut off, or by being slightly cauterised. In a future chapter it will be shown that sensitiveness to the attraction of

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gravity likewise resides in the tip; so that it is the tip which excites the adjoining parts of a horizontally extended radicle to bend towards the centre of the earth.

 

SECONDARY RADICLES BECOMING VERTICALLY GEOTROPIC BY THE DESTRUCTION OR

INJURY OF THE TERMINAL PART OF THE PRIMARY RADICLE.

 

Sachs has shown that the lateral or secondary radicles of the bean, and probably of other plants, are acted on by geotropism in so peculiar a manner, that they grow out horizontally or a little inclined downwards; and he has further shown* the interesting fact, that if the end of the primary radicle be cut off, one of the nearest secondary radicles changes its nature and grows perpendicularly downwards, thus replacing the primary radicle. We repeated this experiment, and planted beans with amputated radicles in friable peat, and saw the result described by Sachs; but generally two or three of the secondary radicles grew perpendicularly downwards. We also modified the experiment, by pinching young radicles a little way above their tips, between the arms of a U-shaped piece of thick leaden wire. The part pinched was thus flattened, and was afterwards prevented from growing thicker. Five radicles had their ends cut off, and served as controls or standards. Eight were pinched; of these 2 were pinched too severely and their ends died and dropped off; 2 were not pinched enough and were not sensibly affected; the remaining 4 were pinched sufficiently to check the growth of the terminal part, but did not appear otherwise injured. When the U-shaped wires were removed, after an * ‘Arbeiten Bot. Institut., W�rzburg,’ Heft iv. 1874, p. 622.

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interval of 15 days, the part beneath the wire was found to be very thin and easily broken, whilst the part above was thickened. Now in these four cases, one or more of the secondary radicles, arising from the thickened part just above the wire, had grown perpendicularly downwards. In the best case the primary radicle (the part below the wire being 1 � inch in length) was somewhat distorted, and was not half as long as three adjoining secondary radicles, which had grown vertically, or almost vertically, downwards. Some of these secondary radicles adhered together or had become confluent. We learn from these four cases that it is not necessary, in order that a secondary radicle should assume the nature of a primary one, that the latter should be actually amputated; it is sufficient that the flow of sap into it should be checked, and consequently should be directed into the adjoining secondary radicles; for this seems to be the most obvious result of the primary radicle being pinched between the arms of a U-shaped wire.

 

This change in the nature of secondary radicles is clearly analogous, as Sachs has remarked, to that which occurs with the shoots of trees, when the leading one is destroyed and is afterwards replaced by one or more of the lateral shoots; for these now grow upright instead of sub-horizontally. But in this latter case the lateral shoots are rendered apogeotropic, whereas with radicles the lateral ones are rendered geotropic. We are naturally led to suspect that the same cause acts with shoots as with roots, namely, an increased flow of sap into the lateral ones. We made some trials with Abies communis and pectinata, by pinching with wire the leading and all the lateral shoots excepting one. But we believe that they were too old when experimented on; and some were pinched too severely, and [page 188]

some not enough. Only one case succeeded, namely, with the spruce-fir. The leading shoot was not killed, but its growth was checked; at its base there were three lateral shoots in a whorl, two of which were pinched, one being thus killed; the third was left untouched. These lateral shoots, when operated on (July 14th) stood at an angle of 8o above the horizon; by Sept.

8th the unpinched one had risen 35o; by Oct. 4th it had risen 46o, and by Jan. 26th 48o, and it had now become a little curved inwards. Part of this rise of 48o may be attributed to ordinary growth, for the pinched shoot rose 12o within the same period. It thus follows that the unpinched shoot stood, on Jan. 26th, 56o above the horizon, or 34o from the vertical; and it was thus obviously almost ready to replace the slowly growing, pinched, leading shoot. Nevertheless, we feel some doubt about this experiment, for we have since observed with spruce-firs growing rather unhealthily, that the lateral shoots near the summit sometimes become highly inclined, whilst the leading shoot remains apparently sound.

 

A widely different agency not rarely causes shoots which naturally would have brown out horizontally to grow up vertically. The lateral branches of the Silver Fir (A. pectinata) are often affected by a fungus, Aecidium elatinum, which causes the branch to enlarge into an oval knob formed of hard wood, in one of which we counted 24 rings of growth. According to De Bary*, when the mycelium penetrates a bud beginning to elongate, the shoot developed from it grows vertically upwards. Such upright shoots after-

 

* See his valuable article in ‘Bot. Zeitung,’ 1867, p. 257, on these monstrous growths, which are called in German “Hexenbesen,” or “witch-brooms.”

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wards produce lateral and horizontal branches; and they then present a curious appearance, as if a young fir-tree had grown out of a ball of clay surrounding the branch. These upright shoots have manifestly changed their nature and become apogeotropic; for if they had not been affected by the Aecidium, they would have grown out horizontally like all the other twigs on the same branches. This change can hardly be due to an increased flow of sap into the part; but the presence of the mycelium will have greatly disturbed its natural constitution.

 

According to Mr. Meehan,* the stems of three species of Euphorbia and of Portulaca oleracea are “normally prostrate or procumbent;” but when they are attacked by an Aecidium, they “assume an erect habit.” Dr. Stahl informs us that he knows of several analogous cases; and these seem to be closely related to that of the Abies. The rhizomes of Sparganium ramosum grow out horizontally in the soil to a considerable length, or are diageotropic; but F. Elfving found that when they were cultivated in water their tips turned upwards, and they became apogeotropic. The same result followed when the stem of the plant was bent until it cracked or was merely much bowed.**

 

No explanation has hitherto been attempted of such cases as the foregoing,-

-namely, of secondary radicles growing vertically downwards, and of lateral shoots growing vertically upwards, after the amputation of * ‘Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia,’ June 16th, 1874, and July 23rd, 1875.

** See F. Elfving’s interesting paper in ‘Arbeiten Bot. Institut., in W�rzburg,’ vol. ii. 1880, p. 489. Carl Kraus (Triesdorf) had previously observed (‘Flora,’ 1878, p. 324) that the underground shoots of Triticum repens bend vertically up when the parts above ground are removed, and when the rhizomes are kept partly immersed in water.

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the primary radicle or of the leading shoot. The following considerations give us, as we believe, the clue. Firstly, any cause which disturbs the constitution* is apt to induce reversion; such as the crossing of two distinct races, or a change of conditions, as when domestic animals become feral. But the case which most concerns us, is the frequent appearance of peloric flowers on the summit of a stem, or in the centre of the inflorescence,—parts which, it is believed, receive the most sap; for when an irregular flower becomes perfectly regular or peloric, this may be attributed, at least partly, to reversion to a primitive and normal type.

Even the position of a seed at the end of the capsule sometimes gives to the seedling developed from it a tendency to revert. Secondly, reversions often occur by means of buds, independently of reproduction by seed; so that a bud may revert to the character of a former state many bud-generations ago. In the case of animals, reversions may occur in the individual with advancing age. Thirdly and lastly, radicles when they first protrude from the seed are always geotropic, and plumules or shoots almost always apogeotropic. If then any cause, such as an increased flow of sap or the presence of mycelium, disturbs the constitution of a lateral shoot or of a secondary radicle, it is apt to revert to its primordial state; and it becomes either apogeotropic or geotropic, as the case may be, and consequently grows either vertically upwards or downwards. It is indeed pos-

 

* The facts on which the following conclusions are founded are