The Evolution of Man, vol 2 by Ernst Haeckel (fun books to read for adults TXT) 📕

There is perhaps no other system of organs in the human body in which this is more necessary than in that of which we are now going to consider the obscure development—the vascular system, or apparatus of circulation. If we were to draw our conclusions as to the original features in our earlier animal ancestors solely from the phenomena of the development of this system in the embryo of man and the other higher Vertebrates, we should be wholly misled. By a number of important embryonic adaptations, the chief of which is the formation of an extensive food-yelk, the original course of the development of the vascular system has been so much falsified and curtailed in the higher Vertebrates that little or nothing now remains in their embryology of some of the principal phylogenetic features. We should be quite unable to explain these if comparative anatomy and ontogeny did not come to our assistance.

The vascular system in man and all the Craniotes is an elaborate apparatus of cavities filled with juices or cell-containing fluids. These “vessels” (vascula) play an important part in the nutrition of the body. They partly conduct the nutritive red blood to the various parts of the body (blood-vessels); partly absorb from the gut the white chyle formed in digestion (chyle-vessels); and partly collect the used-up juices and convey them away from the tissues (lymphatic vessels). With the latter are connected the large cavities of the body, especially the body-cavity, or coeloma. The lymphatic vessels conduct both the colourless lymph and the white chyle into the venous part of the circulation. The lymphatic glands act as producers of new blood-cells, and with them is associated the spleen. The centre of movement for the circulation of the fluids is the heart, a strong muscular sac, which contracts regularly and is equipped with valves like a pump. This constant and steady circulation of the blood makes possible the complex metabolism of the higher animals.

But, however important the vascular system may be to the more advanced and larger and highly-differentiated animals, it is not at all so indispensable an element of animal life as is commonly supposed. The older science of medicine regarded the blood as the real source of life. Even in the still prevalent confused notions of heredity the blood plays the chief part. People speak generally of full blood, half blood, etc., and imagine that the hereditary transmission of certain characters “lies in the blood.” The incorrectness of these ideas is clearly seen from the fact that in the act of generation the blood of the parents is not directly transmitted to the offspring, nor does the embryo possess blood in its early stages. We have already seen that not only the differentiation of the four secondary germinal layers, but also the first structures of the principal organs in the embryo of all the Vertebrates, take place long before there is any trace of the vascular system—the heart and the blood. In accordance with this ontogenetic fact, we must regard the vascular system as one of the latest organs from the phylogenetic point of view; just as we have found the alimentary canal to be one of the earliest. In any case, the vascular system is much later than the alimentary.

(FIGURE 2.358. Red blood-cells of various Vertebrates (equally magnified). 1. of man, 2. camel, 3. dove, 4. proteus, 5. water-salamander (Triton), 6. frog, 7. merlin (Cobitis), 8. lamprey (Petromyzon). a surface-view, b edge-view. (From Wagner.)

FIGURE 2.359. Vascular tissues or endothelium (vasalium). A capillary from the mesentery. a vascular cells, b their nuclei.)

The important nutritive fluid that circulates as blood and lymph in the elaborate canals of our vascular system is not a clear, simple fluid, but a very complex chemical juice with millions of cells floating in it. These blood-cells are just as important in the complicated life of the higher animal body as the circulation of money is to the commerce of a civilised community. Just as the citizens meet their needs most conveniently by means of a financial circulation, so the various tissue-cells, the microscopic citizens of the multicellular human body, have their food conveyed to them best by the circulating cells in the blood. These blood cells (haemocytes) are of two kinds in man and all the other Craniotes—red cells (rhodocytes or erythrocytes) and colourless or lymph cells (leucocytes). The red colour of the blood is caused by the great accumulation of the former, the others circulate among them in much smaller quantity. When the colourless cells increase at the expense of the red we get anaemia (or chlorosis).

(FIGURE 2.360. Transverse section of the trunk of a chick-embryo, forty-five hours old. (From Balfour.) A ectoderm (horny-plate), Mc medullary tube, ch chorda, C entoderm (gut-gland layer), Pv primitive segment (episomite), Wd prorenal duct, pp coeloma (secondary body-cavity). So skin-fibre layer, Sp gut-fibre layer, v blood-vessels in latter, ao primitive aortas, containing red blood-cells.)

The lymph-cells (leucocytes), commonly called the “white corpuscles” of the blood, are phylogenetically older and more widely distributed in the animal world than the red. The great majority of the Invertebrates that have acquired an independent vascular system have only colourless lymph-cells in the circulating fluid. There is an exception in the Nemertines (Figure 2.358) and some groups of Annelids. When we examine the colourless blood of a cray-fish or a snail (Figure 2.358) under a high power of the microscope, we find in each drop numbers of mobile leucocytes, which behave just like independent Amoebae (Figure 1.17). Like these unicellular Protozoa, the colourless blood-cells creep slowly about, their unshapely plasma-body constantly changing its form, and stretching out finger-like processes first in one direction, then another. Like the Amoebae, they take particles into their cell-body. On account of this feature these amoeboid plastids are called “eating cells” (phagocytes), and on account of their motions “travelling cells” (planocytes). It has been shown by the discoveries of the last few decades that these leucocytes are of the greatest physiological and pathological consequence to the organism. They can absorb either solid or dissolved particles from the wall of the gut, and convey them to the blood in the chyle; they can absorb and remove unusable matter from the tissues. When they pass in large quantities through the fine pores of the capillaries and accumulate at irritated spots, they cause inflammation. They can consume and destroy bacteria, the dreaded vehicles of infectious diseases; but they can also transport these injurious Monera to fresh regions, and so extend the sphere of infection. It is probable that the sensitive and travelling leucocytes of our invertebrate ancestors have powerfully cooperated for millions of years in the phylogenesis of the advancing animal organisation.

The red blood-cells have a much more restricted sphere of distribution and activity. But they also are very important in connection with certain functions of the craniote-organism, especially the exchange of gases or respiration. The cells of the dark red, carbonised or venous, blood, which have absorbed carbonic acid from the animal tissues, give this off in the respiratory organs; they receive instead of it fresh oxygen, and thus bring about the bright red colour that distinguishes oxydised or arterial blood. The red colouring matter of the blood (haemoglobin) is regularly distributed in the pores of their protoplasm. The red cells of most of the Vertebrates are elliptical flat disks, and enclose a nucleus of the same shape; they differ a good deal in size (Figure 2.358). The mammals are distinguished from the other Vertebrates by the circular form of their biconcave red cells and by the absence of a nucleus (Figure 1.1); only a few genera still have the elliptic form inherited from the reptiles (Figure 1.2). In the embryos of the mammals the red cells have a nucleus and the power of increasing by cleavage (Figure 1.10).

The origin of the blood-cells and vessels in the embryo, and their relation to the germinal layers and tissues, are among the most difficult problems of ontogeny—those obscure questions on which the most divergent opinions are still advanced by the most competent scientists. In general, it is certain that the greater part of the cells that compose the vessels and their contents come from the mesoderm—in fact, from the gut-fibre layer; it was on this account that Baer gave the name of “vascular layer” to this visceral layer of the coeloma. But other important observers say that a part of these cells come from other germinal layers, especially from the gut-gland layer. It seems to be true that blood-cells may be formed from the cells of the entoderm before the development of the mesoderm. If we examine sections of chickens, the earliest and most familiar subjects of embryology, we find at an early stage the “primitive-aortas” we have already described (Figure 2.360 ao) in the ventral angle between the episoma (Pv) and hyposoma (Sp). The thin wall of these first vessels of the amniote embryo consists of flat cells (endothelia or vascular epithelia); the fluid within already contains numbers of red blood-cells; both have been developed from the gut-fibre layer. It is the same with the vessels of the germinative area (Figure 2.361 v), which lie on the entodermic membrane of the yelk-sac (c). These features are seen still more clearly in the transverse section of the duck-embryo in Figure 1.152. In this we see clearly how a number of stellate cells proceed from the “vascular layer” and spread in all directions in the “primary body-cavity”—i.e. in the spaces between the germinal layers. A part of these travelling cells come together and line the wall of the larger spaces, and thus form the first vessels; others enter into the cavity, live in the fluid that fills it, and multiply by cleavage—the first blood-cells.

But, besides these mesodermic cells of the “vascular layer” proper, other travelling cells, of which the origin and purport are still obscure, take part in the formation of blood in the meroblastic Vertebrates (especially fishes). The chief of these are those that Ruckert has most aptly denominated “merocytes.” These “eating yelk-cells” are found in large numbers in the food-yelk of the Selachii, especially in the yelk-wall—the border zone of the germinal disk in which the embryonic vascular net is first developed. The nuclei of the merocytes become ten times as large as the ordinary cell-nucleus, and are distinguished by their strong capacity for taking colour, or their special richness in chromatin. Their protoplasmic body resembles the stellate cells of osseous tissue (astrocytes), and behaves just like a rhizopod (such as Gromia); it sends out numbers of stellate processes all round, which ramify and stretch into the surrounding food-yelk. These variable and very mobile processes, the pseudopodia of the merocytes, serve both for locomotion and for getting food; as in the real rhizopods, they surround the solid particles of food (granules and plates of yelk), and accumulate round their nucleus the food they have received and digested. Hence we may regard them both as eating-cells (phagocytes) and travelling-cells (planocytes). Their lively nucleus divides quickly and often repeatedly, so that a number of new nuclei are formed in a short time; as each fresh nucleus surrounds itself with a mantle of protoplasm, it provides a new cell for the construction of the embryo. Their origin is still much disputed.

(FIGURE 2.361. Merocytes of a shark-embryo, rhizopod-like yelk-cells underneath the embryonic cavity (B). (From Ruckert.) z two embryonic cells, k nuclei of the merocytes, which wander about in the yelk and eat small yelk-plates (d), k smaller, more superficial, lighter nuclei, k apostrophe a deeper nucleus, in the act of cleavage, k asterisk chromatin-filled border-nucleus, freed from the surrounding yelk in order to show the numerous pseudopodia of the protoplasmic cell-body.)

Half of the twelve stems of the animal world have no blood-vessels. They make their first appearance in the Vermalia. Their earliest source is the primary body-cavity, the simple space between the two primary germinal layers, which is either a