The Elements of Geology by William Harmon Norton (feel good novels .txt) 📕

springs which formed these ancient deposits discharged near what was then the bottom of the valley, and that as the valley has been deepened by the river the ground water of the region has found lower and lower points of issue.

In many parts of the country calcareous springs occur which coat with lime carbonate mosses, twigs, and other objects over which their waters flow. Such are popularly known as petrifying springs, although they merely incrust the objects and do not convert them into stone.

Silica is soluble in alkaline waters, especially when these are hot. Hot springs rising through alkaline siliceous rocks, such as lavas, often deposit silica in a white spongy formation known as SILICEOUS SINTER, both by evaporation and by the action of algae which secrete silica from the waters. It is in this way that the cones and mounds of the geysers in the Yellowstone National Park and in Iceland have been formed.

Where water oozes from the earth one may sometimes see a rusty deposit on the ground, and perhaps an iridescent scum upon the water. The scum is often mistaken for oil, but at a touch it cracks and breaks, as oil would not do. It is a film of hydrated iron oxide, or LIMONITE, and the spring is an iron, or chalybeate, spring. Compounds of iron have been taken into solution by ground water from soil and rocks, and are now changed to the insoluble oxide on exposure to the oxygen of the air.

In wet ground iron compounds leached by ground water from the soil often collect in reddish deposits a few feet below the surface, where their downward progress is arrested by some impervious clay. At the bottom of bogs and shallow lakes iron ores sometimes accumulate to a depth of several feet.

Decaying organic matter plays a large part in these changes. In its presence the insoluble iron oxides which give color to most red and yellow rocks are decomposed, leaving the rocks of a gray or bluish color, and the soluble iron compounds which result are readily leached out,—effects seen where red or yellow clays have been bleached about some decaying tree root.

The iron thus dissolved is laid down as limonite when oxidized, as about a chalybeate spring; but out of contact with the air and in the presence of carbon dioxide supplied by decaying vegetation, as in a peat bog, it may be deposited as iron carbonate, or SIDERITE.

TOTAL AMOUNT OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. In order to realize the vast work in solution and cementation which underground waters are now doing and have done in all geological ages, we must gain some conception of their amount. At a certain depth, estimated at about six miles, the weight of the crust becomes greater than the rocks can bear, and all cavities and pores in them must be completely closed by the enormous pressure which they sustain. Below a depth of even three or four miles it is believed that ground water cannot circulate. Estimating the average pore spaces of the different rocks of the earth's crust above this depth, and the average per cents of their pore spaces occupied by water, it has been recently computed that the total amount of ground water is equal to a sheet of water one hundred feet deep, covering the entire surface of the earth.

CHAPTER III RIVERS AND VALLEYS

THE RUN-OFF. We have traced the history of that portion of the rainfall which soaks into the ground; let us now return to that part which washes along the surface and is known as the RUN-OFF. Fed by rains and melting snows, the run-off gathers into courses, perhaps but faintly marked at first, which join more definite and deeply cut channels, as twigs their stems. In a humid climate the larger ravines through which the run-off flows soon descend below the ground-water surface. Here springs discharge along the sides of the little valleys and permanent streams begin. The water supplied by the run-off here joins that part of the rainfall which had soaked into the soil, and both now proceed together by way of the stream to the sea.

RIVER FLOODS. Streams vary greatly in volume during the year. At stages of flood they fill their immediate banks, or overrun them and inundate any low lands adjacent to the channel; at stages of low water they diminish to but a fraction of their volume when at flood.

At times of flood, rivers are fed chiefly by the run-off; at times of low water, largely or even wholly by springs.

How, then, will the water of streams differ at these times in turbidity and in the relative amount of solids carried in solution?

In parts of England streams have been known to continue flowing after eighteen months of local drought, so great is the volume of water which in humid climates is stored in the rocks above the drainage level, and so slowly is it given off in springs.

In Illinois and the states adjacent, rivers remain low in winter and a "spring freshet" follows the melting of the winter's snows. A "June rise" is produced by the heavy rains of early summer. Low water follows in July and August, and streams are again swollen to a moderate degree under the rains of autumn.

THE DISCHARGE OF STREAMS. The per cent of rainfall discharged by rivers varies with the amount of rainfall, the slope of the drainage area, the texture of the rocks, and other factors. With an annual rainfall of fifty inches in an open country, about fifty per cent is discharged; while with a rainfall of twenty inches only fifteen per cent is discharged, part of the remainder being evaporated and part passing underground beyond the drainage area. Thus the Ohio discharges thirty per cent of the rainfall of its basin, while the Missouri carries away but fifteen per cent. A number of the streams of the semi-arid lands of the West do not discharge more than five per cent of the rainfall.

Other things being equal, which will afford the larger proportion of run-off, a region underlain with granite rock or with coarse sandstone? grass land or forest? steep slopes or level land? a well-drained region or one abounding in marshes and ponds? frozen or unfrozen ground? Will there be a larger proportion of run-off after long rains or after a season of drought? after long and gentle rains, or after the same amount of precipitation in a violent rain? during the months of growing vegetation, from June to August, or during the autumn months?

DESERT STREAMS. In arid regions the ground-water surface lies so low that for the most part stream ways do not intersect it. Streams therefore are not fed by springs, but instead lose volume as their waters soak into the thirsty rocks over which they flow. They contribute to the ground water of the region instead of being increased by it. Being supplied chiefly by the run-off, they wither at times of drought to a mere trickle of water, to a chain of pools, or go wholly dry, while at long intervals rains fill their dusty beds with sudden raging torrents. Desert rivers therefore periodically shorten and lengthen their courses, withering back at times of drought for scores of miles, or even for a hundred miles from the point reached by their waters during seasons of rain.

THE GEOLOGICAL WORK OF STREAMS. The work of streams is of three kinds,—transportation, erosion, and deposition. Streams TRANSPORT the waste of the land; they wear, or ERODE, their channels both on bed and banks; and they DEPOSIT portions of their load from time to time along their courses, finally laying it down in the sea. Most of the work of streams is done at times of flood.

TRANSPORTATION

THE INVISIBLE LOAD OF STREAMS. Of the waste which a river transports we may consider first the invisible load which it carries in solution, supplied chiefly by springs but also in part by the run-off and from the solution of the rocks of its bed. More than half the dissolved solids in the water of the average river consists of the carbonates of lime and magnesia; other substances are gypsum, sodium sulphate (Glauber's salts), magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts), sodium chloride (common salt), and even silica, the least soluble of the common rock-making minerals. The amount of this invisible load is surprisingly large. The Mississippi, for example, transports each year 113,000,000 tons of dissolved rock to the Gulf.

THE VISIBLE LOAD OF STREAMS. This consists of the silt which the stream carries in suspension, and the sand and gravel and larger stones which it pushes along its bed. Especially in times of flood one may note the muddy water, its silt being kept from settling by the rolling, eddying currents; and often by placing his ear close to the bottom of a boat one may hear the clatter of pebbles as they are hurried along. In mountain torrents the rumble of bowlders as they clash together may be heard some distance away. The amount of the load which a stream can transport depends on its velocity. A current of two thirds of a mile per hour can move fine sand, while one of four miles per hour sweeps along pebbles as large as hen's eggs. The transporting power of a stream varies as the sixth power of its velocity. If its velocity is multiplied by two, its transporting power is multiplied by the sixth power of two: it can now move stones sixty-four times as large as it could before.

Stones weigh from two to three times as much as water, and in water lose the weight of the volume of water which they displace. What proportion, then, of their weight in air do stones lose when submerged?

MEASUREMENT OF STREAM LOADS. To obtain the total amount of waste transported by a river is an important but difficult matter. The amount of water discharged must first be found by multiplying the number of square feet in the average cross section of the stream by its velocity per second, giving the discharge per second in cubic feet. The amount of silt to a cubic foot of water is found by filtering samples of the water taken from different parts of the stream and at different times in the year, and drying and weighing the residues. The average amount of silt to the cubic foot of water, multiplied by the number of cubic feet of water discharged per year, gives the total load carried in suspension during that time. Adding to this the estimated amount of sand and gravel rolled along the bed, which in many swift rivers greatly exceeds the lighter material held in suspension, and adding also the total amount of dissolved solids, we reach the exceedingly important result of the total load of waste discharged by the river. Dividing the volume of this load by the area of the river basin gives another result of the greatest geological interest,— the rate at which the region is being lowered by the combined action of weathering and erosion, or the rate of denudation.

THE RATE OF DENUDATION OF RIVER BASINS. This rate varies widely. The Mississippi basin may be taken as a representative land surface because of the varieties of surface, altitude and slope, climate, and underlying rocks which are included in its great extent. Careful measurements show that the Mississippi basin is now being lowered at a rate of one four-thousandth of a foot a year, or one foot in four thousand years. Taking this as the average rate of denudation for the land surfaces of the globe, estimates have been made of the length of time required at this rate to wash and wear the continents to the level of the sea. As the average elevation of the lands of the globe is reckoned at 2411 feet, this result would occur in nine or ten million years, if the present rate of denudation should remain unchanged. But even if no movements of the earth's crust should lift or depress the continents, the rate of wear and the removal of waste from their surfaces will not remain the same. It must constantly decrease as the lands are worn nearer to sea level and their slopes become more gentle. The length of time required to wear them away is therefore far in excess of that just stated.

The drainage area of the Potomac is 11,000 square miles. The silt brought down in suspension in a year would cover a square mile to the depth of four feet. At what rate is the Potomac basin being lowered from this cause alone?

It is estimated that the Upper Ganges is lowering its basin at the rate of one foot in 823 years, and the Po one foot in 720 years. Why so much faster than the Potomac and the Mississippi?

HOW STREAMS GET THEIR LOADS. The load of