How to Talk to Anyone (Junior Talker #4) by DeYtH Banger (novels in english TXT) 📕

of an event).

The depression attributional style is based on three dimensions, namely locus (whether the cause is internal - to do with a person themselves, or external - to do with some aspect of the situation), stability (whether the cause is stable and permanent or unstable and transient) and global or specific (whether the cause relates to the 'whole' person or just some particular feature characteristic).

In this new version of the theory, the mere presence of a negative event was not considered sufficient to produce a helpless or depressive state. Instead, Abramson et al. argued that people who attribute failure to internal, stable, and global causes are more likely to become depressed than those who attribute failure to external, unstable and specific causes. This is because the former attributional style leads people to the conclusion that they are unable to change things for the better.

 

Critical Evaluation

 

Gotlib and Colby (1987) found that people who were formerly depressed are actually no different from people who have never been depressed in terms of their tendencies to view negative events with an attitude of helpless resignation.

This suggests that helplessness could be a symptom rather than a cause of depression. Moreover, it may be that negative thinking generally is also an effect rather than a cause of depression.

 

 

Humanist Approach

 

Humanists believe that there are needs that are unique to the human species. According to Maslow (1962) the most important of these is the need for self-actualization (achieving out potential). The self actualizing human being has a meaningful life. Anything that blocks our striving to fulfil this need can be a cause of depression. What could cause this?

 

Parents imposing conditions of worth on their children. I.e. rather than accepting the child for who s/he is and giving unconditional love, parents make love conditional on good behavior. E.g. a child may be blamed for not doing well at school, develop a negative self-image and feel depressed because of a failure to live up to parentally imposed standards.

 

 

Some children may seek to avoid this by denying their true self and projecting an image of the kind of person they want to be. This façade or false self is an effort to please others. However the splitting off of the real self from the person you are pretending to be causes hatred of the self. The person then comes to despise themselves for living a lie.

 

 

As adults self actualization can be undermined by unhappy relationships and unfulfilling jobs. An empty shell marriage means the person is unable to give and receive love from their partner. An alienating job means the person is denied the opportunity to be creative at work. Chapter 6 - Secrets (Part 3)

 Albert Ellis: Confident and Kicking

 

 

 

Albert Ellis is a stoic philosopher with a sailor's mouth. A half-century ago, Ellis drew from Seneca and Epictetus in devising rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), a way of thinking about thinking that ushered in psychology's cognitive revolution. Now 93 years old, Ellis has challenged and cursed the irrational beliefs of multiple generations. Ellis famously overcame his own timidity by forcing himself to approach women. Today he battles illness and ignominy with equal pluck: He was kicked off the board of his own institute in 2005 (a judge reinstated him last year, though the dispute continues). Ellis has authored more than 75 books, including a forthcoming one about love. Arguably America's most eminent living psychologist, Ellis steadfastly maintains that we're all "out of our f***ing minds."

 

NP: Who is the most socially confident person you've met?

AE: I am.

Did your confidence help you cope with initial opposition to REBT?

Yes. I encountered opposition from practically everybody, including psychologists. But I never considered giving up because I thought there was no other way.

How are you handling the dispute with your institute?

I use REBT to see only what is really there and not exaggerate it. Still, it is the hardest thing I've ever dealt with. This has confirmed my belief that human nature is very irrational.

You're no stranger to controversy. Some might say that the conflict with the institute is par for the course.

I fight injustice wherever it is.

One tenet of REBT is stoicism. How do you use it to cope with seemingly horrible events?

Some things are bad, a few things are exceptionally bad but not awful, and no matter how bad it is, you can stand it.

Will a person who simply behaves in a self-confident manner feel more confident?

Yes. Keep moving, moving, moving. I encourage people to try scary things and not to give a s**t when they're rejected.

What's it like to be a newlywed in your 90s?

It's great. Debbie [Joffe Ellis] is the woman I really, really love. She's made me more other-directed than I used to be.

What constitutes a meaningful, happy existence?

Having goals but not rigidly following them.

What is your most satisfying accomplishment?

The fact that I live my own philosophy.

 

 

 

 

Behaviorist Approach

 

 

 

 

Behaviorism refers to a psychological approach which emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation. The approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, and states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment.

The behaviorist movement began in 1913 when John Watson wrote an article entitled 'Psychology as the behaviorist views it,' which set out a number of underlying assumptions regarding methodology and behavioral analysis:

 

Basic Assumptions

 

All behavior is learned from the environment:

Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior, to the near exclusion of innate or inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on learning.

We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as 'learning theory').

Therefore, when born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).

Psychology should be seen as a science:

Theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained through careful and controlled observation and measurement of behavior. Watson (1913) stated that:

'Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is … prediction and control.' (p. 158).

The components of a theory should be as simple as possible. Behaviorists propose the use of operational definitions (defining variables in terms of observable, measurable events).

 

 

Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion:

While behaviorists often accept the existence of cognitions and emotions, they prefer not to study them as only observable (i.e., external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically measured.

Therefore, internal events, such as thinking should be explained through behavioral terms (or eliminated altogether).

There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals:

There's no fundamental (qualitative) distinction between human and animal behavior. Therefore, research can be carried out on animals as well as humans (i.e., comparative psychology).

Consequently, rats and pigeons became the primary source of data for behaviorists, as their environments could be easily controlled.

Behavior is the result of stimulus-response:

All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus-response association). Watson described the purpose of psychology as:

'To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction.' (1930, p. 11).

 

Types of Behaviorism

 

Historically, the most significant distinction between versions of behaviorism is that between Watson's original 'methodological behaviorism,' and forms of behaviorism later inspired by his work, known collectively as neobehaviorism (e.g., radical behaviorism).

 

Methodological Behaviorism

 

Watson's article 'Psychology as the behaviorist views it' is often referred to as the 'behaviorist manifesto,' in which Watson (1913, p. 158) outlines the principles of all behaviorists:

 

'Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness.

 

The behaviorist, in his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, recognizes no dividing line between man and brute. The behavior of man, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist's total scheme of investigation'.

 

 

Radical Behaviorism

 

Radical behaviorism was founded by B.F Skinner and agreed with the assumption of methodological behaviorism that the goal of psychology should be to predict and control behavior.

Skinner, like Watson, also recognized the role of internal mental events, and while he agreed such private events could not be used to explain behavior, he proposed they should be explained in the analysis of behavior.

Another important distinction between methodological and radical behaviorism concerns the extent to which environmental factors influence behavior. Watson's (1913) methodological behaviorism asserts the mind is tabula rasa (a blank slate) at birth. In contrast, radical behaviorism accepts the view that organisms are born with innate behaviors, and thus recognizes the role of genes and biological components in behavior.

 

 

 

Critical Evaluation

 

An obvious advantage of behaviorism is its ability to define behavior clearly and to measure changes in behavior. According to the law of parsimony, the fewer assumptions a theory makes, the better and the more credible it is. Behaviorism, therefore, looks for simple explanations of human behavior from a very scientific standpoint.

However, behaviorism only provides a partial account of human behavior, that which can be objectively viewed. Important factors like emotions, expectations, higher-level motivation are not considered or explained. Accepting a behaviorist explanation could prevent further research from other perspective that could uncover important factors.

In addition, humanism (e.g., Carl Rogers) rejects the scientific method of using experiments to measure and control variables because it creates an artificial environment and has low ecological validity.

Humanistic psychology also assumes that humans have free will (personal agency) to make their own decisions in life and do not follow the deterministic laws of science. Humanism also rejects the nomothetic approach of behaviorism as they view humans as being unique and believe humans cannot be compared with animals (who aren’t susceptible to demand characteristics). This is known as an idiographic approach.

The psychodynamic approach (Freud) criticizes behaviorism as it does not take into account the unconscious mind’s influence on behavior, and instead focuses on externally observable behavior. Freud also rejects the idea that people are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) and states that people are born with instincts (e.g., eros and thanatos).

Biological psychology states that all behavior has a physical/organic cause. They emphasize the role of nature over nurture. For example, chromosomesand hormones (testosterone) influence our behavior too, in addition to the environment.

Cognitive psychology states that mediational processes occur between stimulus and response, such as memory, thinking, problem-solving, etc.

Despite these criticisms, behaviorism has made significant contributions to psychology. These include insights into learning, language development, and moral and gender development, which have all been explained in terms of conditioning.

 

The contribution of behaviorism can be seen in some of its practical applications. Behavior therapy and behavior modification represent one of the major approaches to the treatment of abnormal behavior and are readily used in clinical psychology.

 

 

 

 

Psychodynamic Approach

 

 

 

The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious, and between the different structures of the personality.

Freud’s psychoanalysis was the original psychodynamic theory, but the psychodynamic approach as a whole includes all theories that were based on his ideas, e.g., Jung (1964), Adler (1927) and Erikson (1950).

The words psychodynamic and psychoanalytic are often confused. Remember that Freud’s theories were psychoanalytic, whereas the term ‘psychodynamic’ refers to both his theories and those of his followers. Freud’s psychoanalysis is both a theory and therapy.

Sigmund Freud (writing between the 1890s and the 1930s) developed a collection of theories which have formed the basis of the psychodynamic approach to psychology.  His theories are clinically derived - i.e., based on what his