An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) π
~Law of conservation of matter.~ The important truth just stated is frequently referred to as the law of conservation of matter, and this law may be briefly stated thus: Matter can neither be created nor destroyed, though it can be changed from one form into another.
~Classification of matter.~ At first sight there appears to be no limit to the varieties of matter of which the world is made. For convenience in study we may classify all these varieties under three heads, namely, mechanical mixtures, chemical compounds, and elements.
[Illustration: Fig. 1]
~Mechanical mixtures.~ If equal bulks of common salt and iron filings
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The presence of water vapor is readily shown by its condensation on cold objects as well as by the fact that a bit of calcium chloride when exposed to the air becomes moist, and may even dissolve in the water absorbed from the air.
2. Constituents not essential to life. In addition to the essential constituents, the air contains small percentages of various other gases, the presence of which so far as is known is not essential to life. This list includes the rare elements, argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon; also hydrogen, ammonia, hydrogen dioxide, and probably ozone. Certain minute forms of life (germs) are also present, the decay of organic matter being due to their presence.
Function of each of the essential constituents. (1) The oxygen directly supports life through respiration. (2) The nitrogen, on account of its inactivity, serves to dilute the oxygen, and while contrary to the older views, it is possible that life might continue to exist in the absence of the atmospheric nitrogen, yet the conditions of life would be entirely changed. Moreover, nitrogen is an essential constituent of all animal and plant life. It was formerly supposed that neither animals nor plants could assimilate the free nitrogen, but it has been shown recently that the plants of at least one natural order, the Leguminosæ, to which belong the beans, peas, and clover, have the power of directly assimilating the free nitrogen from the atmosphere. This is accomplished through the agency of groups of bacteria, which form colonies in little tubercles on the roots of the plants. These bacteria probably assist in the absorption of nitrogen by changing the free nitrogen into compounds which can be assimilated by the plant. Fig. 27 shows the tubercles on the roots of a variety of bean. (3) The presence of water vapor in the air is necessary to prevent excessive evaporation from both plants and animals. (4) Carbon dioxide is an essential plant food.
The quantitative analysis of air. A number of different methods have been devised for the determination of the percentages of the constituents present in the atmosphere. Among these are the following.
1. Determination of oxygen. (1) The oxygen is withdrawn from a measured volume of air inclosed in a tube, by means of phosphorus.
To make the determination, a graduated tube is filled with water and inverted in a vessel of water. Air is introduced into the tube until it is partially filled with the gas. The volume of the inclosed air is carefully noted and reduced to standard conditions. A small piece of phosphorus is attached to a wire and brought within the tube as shown in Fig. 28. After a few hours the oxygen in the inclosed air will have combined with the phosphorus, the water rising to take its place. The phosphorus is removed and the volume is again noted and reduced to standard conditions. The contraction in the volume of the air is equal to the volume of oxygen absorbed.
(2) The oxygen may also be estimated by passing a measured volume of air through a tube containing copper heated to a high temperature. The oxygen in the air combines with the copper to form copper oxide (CuO). Hence the increase in the weight of the copper equals the weight of the oxygen in the volume of air taken.
(3) A more accurate method is the following. A eudiometer tube is filled with mercury and inverted in a vessel of the same liquid. A convenient amount of air is then introduced into the tube and its volume accurately noted. There is then introduced more than sufficient hydrogen to combine with the oxygen present in the inclosed air, and the volume is again accurately noted. The mixture is then exploded by an electric spark, and the volume is once more taken. By subtracting this volume from the total volume of the air and hydrogen there is obtained the contraction in volume due to the union of the oxygen and hydrogen. The volume occupied by the water formed by the union of the two gases is so small that it may be disregarded in the calculation. Since oxygen and hydrogen combine in the ratio 1: 2 by volume, it is evident that the contraction in volume due to the combination is equal to the volume occupied by the oxygen in the air contained in the tube, plus twice this volume of hydrogen. In other words, one third of the total contraction is equal to the volume occupied by the oxygen in the inclosed air. The following example will make this clear:
All these methods agree in showing that 100 volumes of dry air contain approximately 21 volumes of oxygen.
2. Determination of nitrogen. If the gas left after the removal of oxygen from a portion of air is passed over heated magnesium, the nitrogen is withdrawn, argon and the other rare elements being left. It may thus be shown that of the 79 volumes of gas left after the removal of the oxygen from 100 volumes of air, approximately 78 are nitrogen and 0.93 argon. The other elements are present in such small quantities that they may be neglected.
3. Determination of carbon dioxide. The percentage of carbon dioxide in any given volume of air may be determined by passing the air over calcium hydroxide or some other compound which will combine with the carbon dioxide. The increase in the weight of the hydroxide equals the weight of the carbon dioxide absorbed. The amount present in the open normal air is from 3 to 4 parts by volume in 10,000 volumes of air, or about 0.04%.
4. Determination of water vapor. The water vapor present in a given volume of air may be determined by passing the air over calcium chloride (or some other compound which has a strong affinity for water), and noting the increase in the weight of the chloride. The amount present varies not only with the locality, but there is a wide variation from day to day in the same locality because of the winds and changes in temperature.
Processes affecting the composition of the air. The most important of these processes are the following.
1. Respiration. In the process of respiration some of the oxygen in the inhaled air is absorbed by the blood and carried to all parts of the body, where it combines with the carbon of the worn-out tissues. The products of oxidation are carried back to the lungs and exhaled in the form of carbon dioxide. The amount exhaled by an adult averages about 20 l. per hour. Hence in a poorly ventilated room occupied by a number of people the amount of carbon dioxide rapidly increases. While this gas is not poisonous unless present in large amounts, nevertheless air containing more than 15 parts in 10,000 is not fit for respiration.
2. Combustion. All of the ordinary forms of fuel contain large percentages of carbon. On burning, this carbon combines with oxygen in the air, forming carbon dioxide. Combustion and respiration, therefore, tend to diminish the amount of oxygen in the air and to increase the amount of carbon dioxide.
3. Action of plants. Plants have the power, when in the sunlight, of absorbing carbon dioxide from the air, retaining the carbon and returning at least a portion of the oxygen to the air. It will be observed that these changes are just the opposite of those brought about by the processes of respiration and combustion.
Poisonous effect of exhaled air. The differences in the percentages of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and moisture present in inhaled air and exhaled air are shown in the following analyses.
The foul odor of respired air is due to the presence of a certain amount of organic matter. It is possible that this organic matter rather than the carbon dioxide is responsible for the injurious effects which follow the respiration of impure air. The extent of such organic impurities present may be judged, however, by the amount of carbon dioxide present, since the two are exhaled together.
The cycle of carbon in nature. Under the influence of sunlight, the carbon dioxide absorbed from the air by plants reacts with water and small amounts of other substances absorbed from the soil to form complex compounds of carbon which constitute the essential part of the plant tissue. This reaction is attended by the evolution of oxygen, which is restored to the air. The compounds resulting from these changes are much richer in their energy content than are the substances from which they are formed; hence a certain amount of energy must have been absorbed in their formation. The source of this energy is the sun's rays.
If the plant is burned, the changes which took place in the formation of the compounds present are largely reversed. The carbon and hydrogen present combine with oxygen taken from the air to form carbon dioxide and water, while the energy absorbed from the sun's rays is liberated in the form of energy of heat. If, on the other hand, the plant is used as food, the compounds present are used in building up the tissues of the body. When this tissue breaks down, the changes which it undergoes are very similar to those which take place when the plant is burned. The carbon and hydrogen combine with the inhaled oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water, which are exhaled. The energy possessed by the complex substances is liberated partly in the form of energy of heat, which maintains the heat of the body, and partly in the various forms of muscular energy. The carbon originally absorbed from the air by the plant in the form of carbon dioxide is thus restored to the air and is ready to repeat the cycle of changes.
The composition of the air is constant. Notwithstanding the changes constantly taking place which tend to alter the composition of the air, the results of a great many analyses of air collected in the open fields show that the percentages of oxygen and nitrogen as well as of carbon dioxide are very nearly constant. Indeed, so constant are the percentages of oxygen and nitrogen that the question has arisen, whether these two elements are not combined in the air, forming a definite chemical compound. That the two are not combined but are simply mixed together can be shown in a number of ways, among which are the following.
1. When air dissolves in water it has been found that the ratio of oxygen to nitrogen in the dissolved air is no longer 21: 78, but more nearly 35: 65. If it were a chemical compound, the ratio of oxygen to nitrogen would not be changed by solution in water.
2. A chemical compound in the form of a liquid has a definite boiling point. Water, for example, boils at 100Β°. Moreover the steam which is thus formed has the same composition as the water. The boiling point of liquid air, on the other hand, gradually rises as the liquid boils, the nitrogen escaping first followed by the oxygen. If the two were combined, they would pass off together in the ratio in which they are found in the air.
Why the air has a constant composition. If air is a mixture and changes are constantly taking place which tend to modify its composition, how, then, do we account for the constancy of
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