An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) π
~Law of conservation of matter.~ The important truth just stated is frequently referred to as the law of conservation of matter, and this law may be briefly stated thus: Matter can neither be created nor destroyed, though it can be changed from one form into another.
~Classification of matter.~ At first sight there appears to be no limit to the varieties of matter of which the world is made. For convenience in study we may classify all these varieties under three heads, namely, mechanical mixtures, chemical compounds, and elements.
[Illustration: Fig. 1]
~Mechanical mixtures.~ If equal bulks of common salt and iron filings
Read free book Β«An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) πΒ» - read online or download for free at americanlibrarybooks.com
- Author: William McPherson
- Performer: -
Read book online Β«An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) πΒ». Author - William McPherson
The ammonium radical. The radical NH4 plays the part of a metal in many chemical reactions and is called ammonium. The ending -ium is given to the name to indicate the metallic properties of the substance, since the names of the metals in general have that ending. The salts formed by the action of the base ammonium hydroxide on acids are called ammonium salts. Thus, with hydrochloric acid, ammonium chloride is formed in accordance with the equation
Similarly, with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) is formed, and with sulphuric acid, ammonium sulphate ((NH4)2S04).
It will be noticed that in the neutralization of ammonium hydroxide by acids the group NH4 replaces one hydrogen atom of the acid, just as sodium does. The group therefore acts as a univalent metal.
Combination of nitrogen with hydrogen by volume. Under suitable conditions ammonia can be decomposed into nitrogen and hydrogen by passing electric sparks through the gas. Accurate measurement has shown that when ammonia is decomposed, two volumes of the gas yield one volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen. Consequently, if the two elements were to combine directly, one volume of nitrogen would combine with three volumes of hydrogen to form two volumes of ammonia. Here, as in the formation of steam from hydrogen and oxygen, small whole numbers serve to indicate the relation between the volumes of combining gases and that of the gaseous product.
COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN WITH OXYGEN AND HYDROGENIn addition to ammonium hydroxide, nitrogen forms several compounds with hydrogen and oxygen, of which nitric acid (HNO3) and nitrous acid (HNO2) are the most familiar.
Nitric acid (HNO3). Nitric acid is not found to any extent in nature, but some of its salts, especially sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and potassium nitrate (KNO3) are found in large quantities. From these salts nitric acid can be obtained.
Preparation of nitric acid. When sodium nitrate is treated with concentrated cold sulphuric acid, no chemical action seems to take place. If, however, the mixture is heated in a retort, nitric acid is given off as a vapor and may be easily condensed to a liquid by passing the vapor into a tube surrounded by cold water, as shown in Fig. 37. An examination of the liquid left in the retort shows that it contains sodium acid sulphate (NaHSO4), so that the reaction may be represented by the equation
If a smaller quantity of sulphuric acid is taken and the mixture is heated to a high temperature, normal sodium sulphate is formed:
2NaNO3 + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + 2HNO3.
In this case, however, the higher temperature required decomposes a part of the nitric acid.
The commercial preparation of nitric acid. Fig. 38 illustrates a form of apparatus used in the preparation of nitric acid on a large scale. Sodium nitrate and sulphuric acid are heated in the iron retort A. The resulting acid vapors pass in the direction indicated by the arrows, and are condensed in the glass tubes B, which are covered with cloth kept cool by streams of water. These tubes are inclined so that the liquid resulting from the condensation of the vapors runs back into C and is drawn off into large vessels (D).
Physical properties of nitric acid. Pure nitric acid is a colorless liquid, which boils at about 86Β° and has a density of 1.56. The concentrated acid of commerce contains about 68% of the acid, the remainder being water. Such a mixture has a density of 1.4. The concentrated acid fumes somewhat in moist air, and has a sharp choking odor.
Chemical properties. The most important chemical properties of nitric acid are the following.
1. Acid properties. As the name indicates, this substance is an acid, and has all the properties of that class of substances. It changes blue litmus red and has a sour taste in dilute solutions. It forms hydrogen ions in solution and neutralizes bases forming salts. It also acts upon the oxides of most metals, forming a salt and water. It is one of the strongest acids.
2. Decomposition on heating. When boiled, or exposed for some time to sunlight, it suffers a partial decomposition according to the equation
The substance NO2, called nitrogen peroxide, is a brownish gas, which is readily soluble in water and in nitric acid. It therefore dissolves in the undecomposed acid, and imparts a yellowish or reddish color to it. Concentrated nitric acid highly charged with this substance is called fuming nitric acid.
3. Oxidizing action. According to its formula, nitric acid contains a large percentage of oxygen, and the reaction just mentioned shows that the compound is not a very stable one, easily undergoing decomposition. These properties should make it a good oxidizing agent, and we find that this is the case. Under ordinary circumstances, when acting as an oxidizing agent, it is decomposed according to the equation
The oxygen is taken up by the substance oxidized, and not set free, as is indicated in the equation. Thus, if carbon is oxidized by nitric acid, the oxygen combines with carbon, forming carbon dioxide (CO2):
4. Action on metals. We have seen that when an acid acts upon a metal hydrogen is set free. Accordingly, when nitric acid acts upon a metal, such as copper, we should expect the reaction to take place which is expressed in the equation
This reaction does take place, but the hydrogen set free is immediately oxidized to water by another portion of the nitric acid according to the equation
As these two equations are written, two atoms of hydrogen are given off in the first equation, while three are used up in the second. In order that the hydrogen may be equal in the two equations, we must multiply the first by 3 and the second by 2. We shall then have
The two equations may now be combined into one by adding the quantities on each side of the equality sign, canceling the hydrogen which is given off in the one reaction and used up in the other. We shall then have the equation
A number of other reactions may take place when nitric acid acts upon metals, resulting in the formation of other oxides of nitrogen, free nitrogen, or even ammonia. The reaction just given is, however, the usual one.
Importance of steps in a reaction. This complete equation has the advantage of making it possible to calculate very easily the proportions in which the various substances enter into the reaction or are formed in it. It is unsatisfactory in that it does not give full information about the way in which the reaction takes place. For example, it does not suggest that hydrogen is at first formed, and subsequently transformed into water. It is always much more important to remember the steps in a chemical reaction than to remember the equation expressing the complete action; for if these steps in the reaction are understood, the complete equation is easily obtained in the manner just described.
Salts of nitric acid,βnitrates. The salts of nitric acid are called nitrates. Many of these salts will be described in the study of the metals. They are all soluble in water, and when heated to a high temperature undergo decomposition. In a few cases a nitrate on being heated evolves oxygen, forming a nitrite:
In other cases the decomposition goes further, and the metal is left as oxide:
Nitrous acid (HNO2). It is an easy matter to obtain sodium nitrite (NaNO2), as the reaction given on the previous page indicates. Instead of merely heating the nitrate, it is better to heat it together with a mild reducing agent, such as lead, when the reaction takes place which is expressed by the equation
When sodium nitrite is treated with an acid, such as sulphuric acid, it is decomposed and nitrous acid is set free:
The acid is very unstable, however, and decomposes readily into water and nitrogen trioxide (N2O3):
Dilute solutions of the acid, however, can be obtained.
COMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN WITH OXYGENNitrogen combines with oxygen to form five different oxides. The formulas and names of these are as follows:
These will now be briefly discussed.
Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) (N2O). Ammonium nitrate, like all nitrates, undergoes decomposition when heated; and owing to the fact that it contains no metal, but does contain both oxygen and hydrogen, the reaction is a peculiar one. It is represented by the equation
The oxide of nitrogen so formed is called nitrous oxide or laughing gas. It is a colorless gas having a slight odor. It is somewhat soluble in water, and in solution has a slightly sweetish taste. It is easily converted into a liquid and can be purchased in this form. When inhaled it produces a kind of hysteria (hence the name "laughing gas"), and even unconsciousness and insensibility to pain if taken in large amounts. It has long been used as an anæsthetic for minor surgical operations, such as those of dentistry, but owing to its unpleasant after effects it is not so much in use now as formerly.
Chemically, nitrous oxide is remarkable for the fact that it is a very energetic oxidizing agent. Substances such as carbon, sulphur, iron, and phosphorus burn in it almost as brilliantly as in oxygen, forming oxides and setting free nitrogen. Evidently the oxygen in nitrous oxide cannot be held in very firm combination by the nitrogen.
Nitric oxide (NO). We have seen that when nitric acid acts upon metals, such as copper, the reaction represented by the following equation takes place:
Nitric oxide is most conveniently prepared in this way. The metal is placed in the flask A (Fig. 39) and the acid added slowly through the funnel tube B. The gas escapes through C and is collected over water.
Pure nitric oxide is a colorless gas, slightly heavier than air, and is practically insoluble in water. It is a difficult gas to liquefy. Unlike nitrous oxide, nitric oxide does not part with its oxygen easily, and burning substances introduced into this gas are usually extinguished. A few substances like phosphorus, which have a very strong affinity for oxygen and which are burning energetically in the air, will continue to burn in an atmosphere of nitric oxide. In this case the nitric oxide loses all of its oxygen and the nitrogen is set free as gas.
Action of nitric oxide with oxygen. When nitric oxide comes into contact with oxygen or with the air, it at once combines with the oxygen even at ordinary temperatures, forming a reddish-yellow gas of the formula NO2, which is called nitrogen peroxide. This action is not energetic enough to produce a flame, though considerable heat is set free.
Nitrogen peroxide (NO2). This gas, as we have just seen, is formed by allowing nitric oxide to come into contact with oxygen. It can also
Comments (0)