Punctuation by Frederick W. Hamilton (if you give a mouse a cookie read aloud .TXT) 📕
Always remember that the real business of the comma is just that of helping the meaning of the words and of preventing ambiguity by showing clearly the separation and connection of words and phrases. If there is possibility of misunderstanding without a comma, put one in. If the words tell their story beyond possibility of misunderstanding without a comma, there is no reason for its use. This rule will serve as a fairly dependable guide in the absence of any well recognized rule for a particular case, or where doubt exists as to the application of a rule.
Reversed, and usually in pairs, commas mark the beginning of a quotation.
In numerical statements the comma separates Arabic figures by triplets in classes of hundreds: $5,276,492.72.
In tabular work reversed commas are used as a sign for ditto.
SCHOOLS TEACHING PRINTING
Boston: Boston Typothetæ School of Printing.
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Note. In instances such as given in the two preceding rules the en dash may sometimes serve if the em dash appears too conspicuous.
10. A dash preceded by a colon is sometimes used before a long quotation forming a new paragraph. In other cases no point need accompany the dash.
The dash is sometimes used as a substitute for commas. Writers on the subject say that this use occurs when the connection between the parenthetical clause and the context is closer than would be indicated by commas. The distinction, if real, is difficult to see. It would be better if none but the most experienced writers attempted the use of the dash in this way.
Dashes are often used instead of marks of parenthesis. It is better to let each mark do its own work.
THE PARENTHESISThe parenthesis, commonly used in pairs, encloses expressions which have no essential connection with the rest of the sentence, but are important to its full comprehension. It is liable to be neglected by writers because the dash is easier to make, and by printers because it is generally thought to mar the beauty of the line. Its distinct uses, however, should not be neglected.
Rules for the Use of the Parenthesis
1. To introduce into a sentence matter which is not essentially connected with the rest of the sentence, but aids in making it clear.
Trouble began when the apprentice (who had been strictly forbidden to do so) undertook to do some work on his own account.
This year (1914) saw the outbreak of a general war.
2. In reports of speeches to enclose the name of a person who has been referred to, or to indicate expressions on the part of the audience.
The honorable gentleman who has just spoken (Mr. Lodge) has no superior on this floor in his knowledge of international law. (Applause.)
3. Parentheses enclosing interrogation points or exclamation points are sometimes introduced into a sentence to cast doubt on a statement or to express surprise or contempt.
He said that on the fifth of January (?) he was in New York.
This most excellent (!) gentleman.
4. Parentheses are used, generally in pairs, sometimes singly, to enclose the reference letters or figures used to mark division and classification in arguments or in precise statements.
This is done because: (a) it is clearer; (b) it is shorter.
These signs may be printed in several ways.
(a) a) (a) a) (1) 1) (1) 1)
The old-fashioned form of parenthesis, always made too thin, may need a thin space between it and its adjoining character when it is placed too close to any letter that nearly fills the body in height, as in ( Hall ). The space may not be needed when the proximate character has a shoulder, as in ( Art), or when the parenthesis follows a period.)
The italic form of parenthesis is objectionable in book work. Distinction is sought for the word in italic and not for the parenthesis enclosing the word. The italic parenthesis may be used in job-work or full display lines of italic letters.
THE BRACKETBrackets are used in pairs, like the parentheses. In Job composition either brackets or parentheses may be used, as suits the fancy or is convenient. In descriptive text matter, however, brackets should not be used where parentheses are clearly indicated.
Rules for the Use of the Bracket
1. To enclose words or phrases which are entirely independent of the rest of the sentence.
The enclosed words are usually comments, queries, corrections, criticisms, or directions inserted by some person other than the original writer or speaker.
2. To enclose passages of doubtful authenticity in reprints of early manuscripts, special amendments to bills under legislative consideration, or any other portions of a text which need peculiar identification.
3. In legal or ecclesiastical papers to indicate numerical words which may have to be changed, or to indicate where details are to be supplied.
This is the first [second or third] publication.
The officers shall remain in office [here state the time] or until their successors are duly qualified.
4. To avoid the confusion caused by a parenthesis within a parenthesis.
5. A single bracket is used to enclose the ending of a long line of poetry which will not fit the register and has to be run over into an adjoining line.
Doubt whether to use parentheses or brackets can usually be settled by this general principle:
Parentheses always enclose remarks apparently made by the writer of the text. Brackets enclose remarks certainly made by the editor or reporter of that text.
THE INTERROGATIONThe interrogation is the point that asks questions. It should always be placed outside quotation marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself.
Rules for the Use of the Interrogation
1. The interrogation point is used at the end of every direct question.
Are you there?
Indirect questions, that is, statements that a question has been asked, do not require the interrogation.
He asked me if I was there.
He asked the question, Are you there? and received no answer.
2. At the end of each of a series of questions thrown into a single sentence.
Did he speak in an ordinary tone? or shout? or whisper?
3. The interrogation, like a certain inflection in the voice, may indicate that a sentence, though declarative in form, is really a question and requires an answer.
You are, of course, familiar with New York?
THE EXCLAMATIONThe exclamation mark is the mark of strong emotion.
Rules for the Use of the Exclamation
1. After every expression of great surprise or emotion.
Look, my lord! it comes!
Angels and ministers of grace defend us!
Alas! my father.
2. After interjections and other exclamatory words.
Hurrah! Good! Away! Oh!
Where the exclamations are repeated without particularly emphasizing each one, each may be followed by a comma except the last.
Ha, ha, ha! That’s a good joke!
O used as a vocative or to express a desire or imprecation does not call for an exclamation.
O John.
Oh, yes.
O, that night would come!
The exclamation is sometimes used in job printing to fill out a display line or for other inadequate reasons. These uses should be avoided.
THE APOSTROPHEThe apostrophe is primarily the sign of the possessive case, but it has several other uses.
Rules for the Use of the Apostrophe
1. The apostrophe for the possessive case is added only to nouns, not to the pronouns, which have their distinct possessive forms. Its is a possessive pronoun. It’s is an abbreviation for it is. Do not use an apostrophe with the possessive adjectives hers, ours, yours, theirs, its.
2. All nouns in the singular and all nouns in the plural except those ending in s take an apostrophe and s to form the possessive.
Nouns in the plural ending in s take an apostrophe only to form the possessive.
There is much difference of opinion as to the invariability of the rule concerning singular nouns in s. DeVinne advises following the pronunciation. Where the second s is not pronounced, as often happens, to avoid the prolonged hissing sound of another s, he recommends omitting it in print.
Moses’ hat, for Moses’s hat.
For conscience’ sake.
3. The apostrophe indicates the omission of letters in dialect, in familiar dialogue, and in poetry.
That’s ’ow ’tis.
’Twas ever thus.
When two words are practically made into one syllable, a thin space may be put before the apostrophe, except that don’t, can’t, won’t, and shan’t are consolidated. This use of a space serves to distinguish between the possessive in s and the contraction of is.
Where death ’s abroad and sorrow ’s close behind.
4. Figures expressing dates are often abbreviated, but it is not good general practice.
The boys of ’61.
It happened in ’14.
5. The apostrophe is used to form the plural of letters and figures.
Cross your t’s and dot your i’s.
Make 3’s and 5’s more plain.
Except in these cases the apostrophe is not a plural sign and should be so used only when it is intended to reproduce a dialect or colloquialism.
Wrong: All the Collins’s were there.
Right: All the Collinses were there.
The final ed of past tenses and past participles was formerly pronounced as a distinct syllable, thus: clos-ed, belov-ed, and this pronunciation continued in common use in poetry long after it was discontinued in prose. During this period of transition the modern pronunciation was indicated by dropping the e and using an apostrophe, thus: clos’d, belov’d. It is now understood that while the full spelling is to be used, the old pronunciation is not to be used unless specially indicated by placing a grave accent over the e of the last syllable, thus: belovèd.
At the same period poets, especially, used an apostrophe to indicate a silent e as in ev’ry, but the usage is now obsolete.
Such abbreviations as Dep’t, Gov’t, Sec’y, and the like, are objectionable in print. If such abbreviations are necessary it is better to use the forms Dept., Govt., Secy.
THE HYPHENThe hyphen is used to join compound words; to mark the division of a word too long to go entirely into one line; to separate the syllables of words in order to show pronunciation; as a leader in tabular work. For this last purpose the period is to be preferred to any other mark in use. Tabular work without leaders is obscure and therefore objectionable.
QUOTATION MARKSQuotation marks are signs used to indicate that the writer is giving exactly the words of another. A French printer named Morel used a comma in the outer margin to indicate a quoted line about 1550. About a century later another Frenchman, Ménage, introduced a mark («») resembling a double parenthesis but shorter. These marks were cast on the middle of the type body so that they could be reversed for use at either the beginning or the end of a quotation. The French have retained these signs as their quotation marks ever since.
When the English adopted the use of quotation marks, they did not take over the French marks, but substituted two inverted commas at the beginning and two apostrophes at the end of the quoted paragraph. These marks are typographically unsatisfactory. They are weak and therefore hardly adequate to their purpose in aiding the understanding through the eye. Being cast on the upper part of the type body, they leave a blank space below and thus impair the beauty of the line and interfere with good spacing. Certain rules for the position of quotation marks when used with other marks are based upon these typographical considerations rather than upon logical considerations.
Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks
1. Every direct quotation should be enclosed in double quotation marks.
“I will go,” said he, “if I can.”
Reports of what another person has said when given in words other than his own are called indirect quotations and take no marks.
He said he would go if he could.
2. A quotation of several paragraphs requires quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only. In legal documents, and sometimes elsewhere, quotations are defined and emphasized by putting double commas at the beginning of every line of the quotation.
The same result may be better obtained by using smaller type, or indenting the quotation, or both.
3. A quotation included within another quotation should be enclosed by single quotation marks.
He said: “I heard him cry ‘Put down that gun,’ and then I heard a shot.”
4. Titles of books, essays, art works, etc., are usually enclosed in quotation marks. When the books are supposedly familiar to all readers, the marks are not used. You would not print “The Bible,” “Paradise Lost,” “The Iliad.”
The titles of books, etc., are sometimes printed in italics instead of being enclosed in quotation marks. This is a matter of
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