An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) π
~Law of conservation of matter.~ The important truth just stated is frequently referred to as the law of conservation of matter, and this law may be briefly stated thus: Matter can neither be created nor destroyed, though it can be changed from one form into another.
~Classification of matter.~ At first sight there appears to be no limit to the varieties of matter of which the world is made. For convenience in study we may classify all these varieties under three heads, namely, mechanical mixtures, chemical compounds, and elements.
[Illustration: Fig. 1]
~Mechanical mixtures.~ If equal bulks of common salt and iron filings
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Amalgamation process. In some localities the old amalgamation process is used. The silver ore is treated with common salt and ferrous compounds, which process converts the silver first into chloride and then into metallic silver. Mercury is then added and thoroughly mixed with the mass, forming an amalgam with the silver. After some days the earthy materials are washed away and the heavier amalgam is recovered. The mercury is distilled off and the silver left in impure form.
Refining silver. The silver obtained by either of the above processes may still contain copper, gold, and iron, and is refined by "parting" with sulphuric acid. The metal is heated with strong sulphuric acid which dissolves the silver, copper, and iron present, but not the gold. In the solution of silver sulphate so obtained copper plates are suspended, upon which the pure silver precipitates, the copper going into solution as sulphate, as shown in the equation
The solution obtained as a by-product in this process furnishes most of the blue vitriol of commerce. Silver is also refined by electrolytic methods similar to those used in refining copper.
Properties of silver. Silver is a heavy, rather soft, white metal, very ductile and malleable and capable of taking a high polish. It surpasses all other metals as a conductor of heat and electricity, but is too costly to find extensive use for such purposes. It melts at a little lower temperature than copper (961Β°). It alloys readily with other heavy metals, and when it is to be used for coinage a small amount of copperβfrom 8 to 10%βis nearly always melted with it to give it hardness.
It is not acted upon by water or air, but is quickly tarnished when in contact with sulphur compounds, turning quite black in time. Hydrochloric acid and fused alkalis do not act upon it, but nitric acid and hot, concentrated sulphuric acid dissolve it with ease.
Electroplating. Since silver is not acted upon by water or air, and has a pleasing appearance, it is used to coat various articles made of cheaper metals. Such articles are said to be silver plated. The process by which this is done is called electroplating. It is carried on as follows: The object to be plated (such as a spoon) is attached to a wire and dipped into a solution of a silver salt. Electrical connection is made in such a way that the article to be plated serves as the cathode, while the anode is made up of one or more plates of silver (Fig. 88, A). When a current is passed through the electrolyte silver dissolves from the anode plate and deposits on the cathode in the form of a closely adhering layer. By making the proper change in the electrolyte and anode plate objects may be plated with gold and other metals.
Compounds of silver. Silver forms two oxides but only one series of salts, namely, the one which corresponds to the mercurous and cuprous series.
Silver nitrate (lunar caustic) (AgNO3). This salt is easily prepared by dissolving silver in nitric acid and evaporating the resulting solution. It crystallizes in flat plates, and when heated carefully can be melted without decomposition. When cast into sticks it is called lunar caustic, for it has a very corrosive action on flesh, and is sometimes used in surgery to burn away abnormal growths.
The alchemists designated the metals by the names of the heavenly bodies. The moon (luna) was the symbol for silver; hence the name "lunar caustic."
Silver sulphide (Ag2S). This occurs in nature and constitutes one of the principal ores of silver. It can be obtained in the form of a black solid by passing hydrosulphuric acid through a solution of silver nitrate.
Compounds of silver with the halogens. The chloride, bromide, and iodide of silver are insoluble in water and acids, and are therefore precipitated by bringing together a soluble halogen salt with silver nitrate:
They are remarkable for the fact that they are very sensitive to the action of light, undergoing a change of color and chemical composition when exposed to sunlight, especially if in contact with organic matter such as gelatin.
Photography. The art of photography is based on the fact that the halogen compounds of silver are affected by the light, particularly in the presence of organic matter. From a chemical standpoint the processes involved may be described under two heads: (1) the preparation of the negative; (2) the preparation of the print.
1. Preparation of the negative. The plate used in the preparation of the negative is made by spreading a thin layer of gelatin, in which silver bromide is suspended (silver iodide is sometimes added also), over a glass plate or celluloid film and allowing it to dry. When the plate so prepared is placed in a camera and the image of some object is focused upon it, the silver salt undergoes a change which is proportional at each point to the intensity of the light falling upon it. In this way an image of the object photographed is produced upon the plate, which is, however, invisible and is therefore called "latent." It can be made visible by the process of developing.
To develop the image the exposed plate is immersed in a solution of some reducing agent called the developer. The developer reduces that portion of the silver salt which has been affected by the light, depositing it in the form of black metallic silver which closely adheres to the plate.
The unaffected silver salt, upon which the developer has no action, must now be removed from the plate. This is done by immersing the plate in a solution of sodium thiosulphate (hypo). After the silver salt has been dissolved off, the plate is washed with water and dried. The plate so prepared is called the negative because it is a picture of the object photographed, with the lights exactly reversed. This is called fixing the negative.
2. Preparation of the print. The print is made from paper which is prepared in the same way as the negative plate. The negative is placed upon this paper and exposed to the light in such a way that the light must pass through the negative before striking the paper. If the paper is coated with silver chloride, a visible image is produced, in which case a developer is not needed. The proofs are made in this way. In order to make them permanent the unchanged silver chloride must be dissolved off with sodium thiosulphate. The print is then toned by dipping it into a solution of gold or platinum salts. The silver on the print passes into solution, while the gold or platinum takes its place. These metals give a characteristic color or tone to the print, the gold making it reddish brown, while the platinum gives it a steel-gray tone. If a silver bromide paper is used in making the print, a latent image is produced which must be developed as in the case of the negative itself. The silver bromide is much more sensitive than the chloride, so that the printing can be done in artificial light. Since the darkest places on the negative cut off the most light, it is evident that the lights of the print will be the reverse of those of the negative, and will therefore correspond to those of the object photographed. The print is therefore called the positive.
EXERCISES1. Account for the fact that copper has been used for so long a time.
2. Write equations for the action of concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids upon the metals of this family.
3. How would you account for the fact that normal copper sulphate is slightly acid to litmus?
4. Contrast the action of heat on cupric nitrate and mercuric nitrate.
5. State reasons why mercury is adapted for use in thermometers and barometers.
6. How could you distinguish between mercurous chloride and mercuric chloride?
7. Write equations for the preparation of mercuric and mercurous iodides.
8. How would you account for the fact that solutions of the different salts of a metal usually have the same color?
9. Crude silver usually contains iron and lead. What would become of these metals in refining by parting with sulphuric acid?
10. In the amalgamation process for extracting silver, how does ferrous chloride convert silver chloride into silver? Write equation. Why is the silver sulphide first changed into silver chloride?
11. What impurities would you expect to find in the copper sulphate prepared from the refining of silver?
12. How could you prepare pure silver chloride from a silver coin?
13. Mercuric nitrate and silver nitrate are both white solids soluble in water. How could you distinguish between them?
14. Account for the fact that sulphur waters turn a silver coin black; also for the fact that a silver spoon is blackened by foods (eggs, for example) containing sulphur.
15. When a solution of silver nitrate is added to a solution of potassium chlorate no precipitate forms. How do you account for the fact that a precipitate of silver chloride is not formed?
CHAPTER XXIX TIN AND LEADThe family. Tin and lead, together with silicon and germanium, form a family in Group IV of the periodic table. Silicon has been discussed along with the non-metals, while germanium, on account of its rarity, needs only to be mentioned.
The other family of Group IV includes carbon, already described, and a number of rare elements.
TINOccurrence. Tin is found in nature chiefly as the oxide (SnO2), called cassiterite or tinstone. The most famous mines are those of Cornwall in England, and of the Malay Peninsula and East India Islands; in small amounts tinstone is found in many other localities.
Metallurgy. The metallurgy of tin is very simple. The ore, separated as far as possible from earthy materials, is mixed with carbon and heated in a furnace, the reduction taking place readily. The equation is
The metal is often purified by carefully heating it until it is partly melted; the pure tin melts first and can be drained away from the impurities.
Properties. Pure tin, called block tin, is a soft white metal with a silver-like appearance and luster; it melts readily (235Β°) and is somewhat lighter than copper, having a density of 7.3. It is quite malleable and can be rolled out into very thin sheets, forming tin foil; most tin foil, however, contains a good deal of lead.
Under ordinary conditions it is quite unchanged by air or moisture, but at a high temperature it burns in air, forming the oxide SnO2. Dilute acids have no effect upon it, but concentrated acids attack it readily. Concentrated hydrochloric acid changes it into the chloride
With sulphuric acid tin sulphate and sulphur dioxide are formed:
Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes it, forming a white insoluble compound of the formula H2SnO3, called metastannic acid:
Uses of tin. A great deal of tin
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