GLOBALISATION OF BUSINESS by Syed Sajid (early reader books .txt) π
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During the last decades of the 20th century many barriers to international trade fell and a wave of firms began pursing global strategies to gain competitive advantage.
Rather than thinking in terms of national markets and national economies, leaders of business thought in terms of global markets.
Rather than thinking in terms of national markets and national economies, leaders of business thought in terms of global markets.
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Marxism has been a foundation of international relations.
Study of IR
Initially, international relations as a distinct field of study was almost entirely British-centered. IR only emerged as a formal academic βdisciplineβ in 1918 with the founding of the first βchairβ (professorship) in IR - the Woodrow Wilson Chair at Aberystwyth, University of Wales, rapidly followed by establishment of IR at US universities and Geneva, Switzerland. from an endowment given by David Davies, became the first academic position dedicated to IR. In the early 1920s, the London School of Economics' department of International Relations was founded at the behest of Nobel Peace Prize winner Philip Noel-Baker.
The first university entirely dedicated to the study of IR was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies), which was founded in 1927 to form diplomats associated to the League of Nations, established in Geneva some years before. The Graduate Institute of International Studies offered one of the first Ph.D. degrees in international relations. Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest international relations faculty in the United States, founded in 1919. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 1928.
Developing and integrating Approach to globalization-A Case Analysis
Despite academic and media analysis of the concept of globalization, discussions about this topic has still preoccupied the scientific and decision-making centers in Iran. Some governmental institutions have been instructed to compile the principles and intellectual fundamentals as well as approaches that prepare the grounds for appropriate decision-making and policy-making in this field. Hence it is necessary to study this topic from various viewpoints and shed light on its different angles in the light of its strong and weak points as well as opportunities and threats.
The Islamic Revolution took shape on the basis of universal ideas of Islam. The message of Islam is universal and is not confined to the parochial territorial, ethnic, and racial frameworks. Simultaneous with the victory of the Islamic Revolution in the later decades of the twentieth century, rapid technological developments formed an interdependent world and there was ample talk of the concept of globalization to the extent that these decades were called the era of globalization, for during those days the issue of globalization occupied a major chunk of scientific discussions and debate in the world and a large number of books and articles were written about it and still hot discussions are going on in the scientific circles and universities of the world. In practice we observe the popular opposition, particularly by the workers and peasants, students and environmentalists. There are a number of cultural questions and ambiguities about this concept and related terms. The political and scientific elite, the academic circles and policy-making centers and officials as well as the media and even the common citizens talk about it.
Regarding the nature of globalization, despite the fact that there are several works on this topic and their number is increasing everyday, there is not yet any single definition about globalization and there is no consensus about it among the scholars. Just like other theoretical subjects, this topic too faces a kind of ambiguity. In fact it is very difficult and somehow ambitious to give a clear definition of the term globalization.
Anthony Giddens, the renowned British sociologist, maintains that this concept has hardly been understood. Some other writers believe that this concept has no meaning or the concept of globalization is a new term for the phenomena already known with other names.[i] There are various viewpoints about globalization, each focusing on a specific aspect. Some writers maintain that the main feature of globalization is fundamental changes in the global capitalist order in the arenas of production, distribution, trade, finance and technology which can be termed as transition from organized capitalism to unorganized capitalism on global level. In other words, they define it as a process which is creating a new social atmosphere.[ii]
Paul Cook and Colin Patrick pay attention to the considerable enhancement of interdependence of the countries. They define globalization as such: Expansion of various relations and ties among the governments and societies that form the global system. Globalization is a process through which events, decisions, and activities of one part of the world can have some implications for the societies of a completely distinct part of the world.[iii] In fact globalization is defined from various angles, but most of the definitions pay attention to the communication aspect. From this angle they consider globalization as a concept that refers to the shrinking of the world in time and space.
On the basis of a definition, globalization is a predictable move for commencement and correction of the information dissemination movement by new information technologies at regional and international levels.[iv]
Anthony Mcgrew confirming that globalization is a multidimensional phenomena,[v] pays due attention to the issue of communication, defining globalization as the increasing mutual communication. He introduces the following items as the components of his definition:
1 β Under the conditions of globalization, social, political and economic activities influence and are influenced by the trans-national events.
2 β Globalization intensifies mutual interactions, creating a new global system.
3 β The growth of intensity and extent of communications leads to the elimination of the distance between domestic and international issues. In fact communications become so deep that the people on the side of their local lives feel a global aspect of their lives as well.
4 β Growing communications create some issues at transnational level which can be settled and handled only through global cooperation (proliferation of weapons and the problem of drug trafficking are among such issues).
5 β The volume and intensity of communications create an intertwined network between the governments and international institutions, communities, non-governmental organizations, and multinational corporations. These networks lead to the creation of global system and this system creates systemic limitations for the activities of the actors, reducing their autonomy.[vi]
Of course the explanations given under the said definition are the consequences of globalization that have been referred to by -Mcgrew and that we will take up below
Globalization has also been defined from other aspects. Many thinkers have defined globalization only from economic point of view. For instance, on the basis of a definition, globalization means economy, development and domination of an economic production system on the societies of the world. Although this system does not rely on a single country, or a single source of economic-political power, it is mainly under the influence of the most powerful and effective economic-political units in the world.[vii]
On the basis of another definition, globalization in simple language means unity of market, labor and production market, money and capital.[viii]
Cultural globalization has been defined as a process that facilitates the transformation of cultural features to a part of the global cultural order and consequently the local cultures will be either eliminated or renovated.[ix]
Many thinkers maintain that globalization in its cultural aspect is unification of various cultures and formation of a single global culture. This definition has drawn lots of criticisms and many consider the formation of such a culture neither possible nor likely.
From political point of view, globalization means dilution of national borders, move towards a global government and reduction of the roles of nation-states in the interest of the transnational corporations. In political aspect of globalization attention is paid to the role of governments in the new world and many maintain that globalization will weaken or even cause the disintegration of the states. On the contrary, some others maintain that this will never happen. Indeed the phenomenon of nation-state has drawn the attention of the scholars in most definitions of the globalization.
Overall, the best and most comprehensive definition of globalization is the one which pays attention to all aspects and looks at the issue from different aspects in a holistic approach. Without any doubt globalization has various consequences in various fields. For instance one cannot look at the cultural globalization without paying attention to political or economic aspects of globalization.
Globalization or Globalism?
One of the fundamental questions about the concept of globalization is whether this phenomenon is a process stemming from the processes of development of human societies through the passage of time, or is it a project that has been designed by some Western countries for whose prosperity the great powers play a great deal? In sum, is globalization a project or a process?
The opponents of globalization, particularly in the South, consider it a brainchild of the strong industrial countries through which they try to dominate and exploit the underdeveloped world.
Contrary to the opponents, the advocates of globalization consider it an unavoidable process in which all countries are allowed and at the same time forced to accompany it and would enjoy its numerous advantages as well.
Commenting on whether transformation of the world into a single space should be considered a Western project, B. Oxford, alluding to a statement by Giddens, says: Giddens unhappily refers to the fact that the consequences of modernism entails nothing except the expansion of Western institutions across the world along with the elimination of the local cultures.
He maintains that the global processes more than expanding modernism have functioned as its accelerator.[x]
Another definition put forth in this regard is: globalization is a process in which some big powers decide in the direction of their own interests to prepare a conscious plan and define some objectives for this process. In fact they overburden the project of protection of their own interests on this process. Just like mounting the project of colonialism on development and progress in the past.[xi]
Probably the following definition of globalization may seem more interesting: globalization is just like a tumultuous river that the more it goes forward, the more it becomes tumultuous and those who are equipped with appropriate tools and capabilities can ride and utilize the wave better than those who lack such tools.
Without any doubt, one cannot overlook the role of the big powers in this process, for some of these powers wish to change the direction of globalization in their own interests.[xii] However, it does not mean that the entire globalization process has been created by the West. Evidently, the big powers and the rich have taken any opportunity in the course of history to increase their power and interests. Currently, the West, relying on its capabilities and power in various aspects (particularly with regard to production of idea and creativity), tries to manage this process towards its own interests. It does not mean that weaker countries do not utilize this process, but the level, degree and kind of interests vary from one country to another.
Backgrounds of Globalization
A) Information Revolution β The considerable expansion and development of information technology has turned the world into a global village and it is no more possible just like in the past to close the doors and follow policies hidden from the eyes of others.
The growing power of computers, computer software and revolution in the realm of information technology in various ways has in effect helped the condensation of the world. The transportation of goods, financial and personal currents have become very rapid due to the technological progress (particularly in the field of information technology)[xiii] to the extent that information revolution has prepared the most appropriate grounds for acceleration and signification of globalization.
B) Economic backgrounds β Free flow of capital and goods, considerable increase in the commercial and economic communications on global scale, rapid growth of multinational corporations, dilution of national borders, growth of the volume of financial markets, more and more internationalization of capital, dilution of the indigenous nature and color of the goods, reduction of expenses, and finally integration of industrial and economic markets of the world,[xiv] all and all have played an important role in signification of this process.
The formation of GATT (General Agreement on
Study of IR
Initially, international relations as a distinct field of study was almost entirely British-centered. IR only emerged as a formal academic βdisciplineβ in 1918 with the founding of the first βchairβ (professorship) in IR - the Woodrow Wilson Chair at Aberystwyth, University of Wales, rapidly followed by establishment of IR at US universities and Geneva, Switzerland. from an endowment given by David Davies, became the first academic position dedicated to IR. In the early 1920s, the London School of Economics' department of International Relations was founded at the behest of Nobel Peace Prize winner Philip Noel-Baker.
The first university entirely dedicated to the study of IR was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies), which was founded in 1927 to form diplomats associated to the League of Nations, established in Geneva some years before. The Graduate Institute of International Studies offered one of the first Ph.D. degrees in international relations. Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest international relations faculty in the United States, founded in 1919. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 1928.
Developing and integrating Approach to globalization-A Case Analysis
Despite academic and media analysis of the concept of globalization, discussions about this topic has still preoccupied the scientific and decision-making centers in Iran. Some governmental institutions have been instructed to compile the principles and intellectual fundamentals as well as approaches that prepare the grounds for appropriate decision-making and policy-making in this field. Hence it is necessary to study this topic from various viewpoints and shed light on its different angles in the light of its strong and weak points as well as opportunities and threats.
The Islamic Revolution took shape on the basis of universal ideas of Islam. The message of Islam is universal and is not confined to the parochial territorial, ethnic, and racial frameworks. Simultaneous with the victory of the Islamic Revolution in the later decades of the twentieth century, rapid technological developments formed an interdependent world and there was ample talk of the concept of globalization to the extent that these decades were called the era of globalization, for during those days the issue of globalization occupied a major chunk of scientific discussions and debate in the world and a large number of books and articles were written about it and still hot discussions are going on in the scientific circles and universities of the world. In practice we observe the popular opposition, particularly by the workers and peasants, students and environmentalists. There are a number of cultural questions and ambiguities about this concept and related terms. The political and scientific elite, the academic circles and policy-making centers and officials as well as the media and even the common citizens talk about it.
Regarding the nature of globalization, despite the fact that there are several works on this topic and their number is increasing everyday, there is not yet any single definition about globalization and there is no consensus about it among the scholars. Just like other theoretical subjects, this topic too faces a kind of ambiguity. In fact it is very difficult and somehow ambitious to give a clear definition of the term globalization.
Anthony Giddens, the renowned British sociologist, maintains that this concept has hardly been understood. Some other writers believe that this concept has no meaning or the concept of globalization is a new term for the phenomena already known with other names.[i] There are various viewpoints about globalization, each focusing on a specific aspect. Some writers maintain that the main feature of globalization is fundamental changes in the global capitalist order in the arenas of production, distribution, trade, finance and technology which can be termed as transition from organized capitalism to unorganized capitalism on global level. In other words, they define it as a process which is creating a new social atmosphere.[ii]
Paul Cook and Colin Patrick pay attention to the considerable enhancement of interdependence of the countries. They define globalization as such: Expansion of various relations and ties among the governments and societies that form the global system. Globalization is a process through which events, decisions, and activities of one part of the world can have some implications for the societies of a completely distinct part of the world.[iii] In fact globalization is defined from various angles, but most of the definitions pay attention to the communication aspect. From this angle they consider globalization as a concept that refers to the shrinking of the world in time and space.
On the basis of a definition, globalization is a predictable move for commencement and correction of the information dissemination movement by new information technologies at regional and international levels.[iv]
Anthony Mcgrew confirming that globalization is a multidimensional phenomena,[v] pays due attention to the issue of communication, defining globalization as the increasing mutual communication. He introduces the following items as the components of his definition:
1 β Under the conditions of globalization, social, political and economic activities influence and are influenced by the trans-national events.
2 β Globalization intensifies mutual interactions, creating a new global system.
3 β The growth of intensity and extent of communications leads to the elimination of the distance between domestic and international issues. In fact communications become so deep that the people on the side of their local lives feel a global aspect of their lives as well.
4 β Growing communications create some issues at transnational level which can be settled and handled only through global cooperation (proliferation of weapons and the problem of drug trafficking are among such issues).
5 β The volume and intensity of communications create an intertwined network between the governments and international institutions, communities, non-governmental organizations, and multinational corporations. These networks lead to the creation of global system and this system creates systemic limitations for the activities of the actors, reducing their autonomy.[vi]
Of course the explanations given under the said definition are the consequences of globalization that have been referred to by -Mcgrew and that we will take up below
Globalization has also been defined from other aspects. Many thinkers have defined globalization only from economic point of view. For instance, on the basis of a definition, globalization means economy, development and domination of an economic production system on the societies of the world. Although this system does not rely on a single country, or a single source of economic-political power, it is mainly under the influence of the most powerful and effective economic-political units in the world.[vii]
On the basis of another definition, globalization in simple language means unity of market, labor and production market, money and capital.[viii]
Cultural globalization has been defined as a process that facilitates the transformation of cultural features to a part of the global cultural order and consequently the local cultures will be either eliminated or renovated.[ix]
Many thinkers maintain that globalization in its cultural aspect is unification of various cultures and formation of a single global culture. This definition has drawn lots of criticisms and many consider the formation of such a culture neither possible nor likely.
From political point of view, globalization means dilution of national borders, move towards a global government and reduction of the roles of nation-states in the interest of the transnational corporations. In political aspect of globalization attention is paid to the role of governments in the new world and many maintain that globalization will weaken or even cause the disintegration of the states. On the contrary, some others maintain that this will never happen. Indeed the phenomenon of nation-state has drawn the attention of the scholars in most definitions of the globalization.
Overall, the best and most comprehensive definition of globalization is the one which pays attention to all aspects and looks at the issue from different aspects in a holistic approach. Without any doubt globalization has various consequences in various fields. For instance one cannot look at the cultural globalization without paying attention to political or economic aspects of globalization.
Globalization or Globalism?
One of the fundamental questions about the concept of globalization is whether this phenomenon is a process stemming from the processes of development of human societies through the passage of time, or is it a project that has been designed by some Western countries for whose prosperity the great powers play a great deal? In sum, is globalization a project or a process?
The opponents of globalization, particularly in the South, consider it a brainchild of the strong industrial countries through which they try to dominate and exploit the underdeveloped world.
Contrary to the opponents, the advocates of globalization consider it an unavoidable process in which all countries are allowed and at the same time forced to accompany it and would enjoy its numerous advantages as well.
Commenting on whether transformation of the world into a single space should be considered a Western project, B. Oxford, alluding to a statement by Giddens, says: Giddens unhappily refers to the fact that the consequences of modernism entails nothing except the expansion of Western institutions across the world along with the elimination of the local cultures.
He maintains that the global processes more than expanding modernism have functioned as its accelerator.[x]
Another definition put forth in this regard is: globalization is a process in which some big powers decide in the direction of their own interests to prepare a conscious plan and define some objectives for this process. In fact they overburden the project of protection of their own interests on this process. Just like mounting the project of colonialism on development and progress in the past.[xi]
Probably the following definition of globalization may seem more interesting: globalization is just like a tumultuous river that the more it goes forward, the more it becomes tumultuous and those who are equipped with appropriate tools and capabilities can ride and utilize the wave better than those who lack such tools.
Without any doubt, one cannot overlook the role of the big powers in this process, for some of these powers wish to change the direction of globalization in their own interests.[xii] However, it does not mean that the entire globalization process has been created by the West. Evidently, the big powers and the rich have taken any opportunity in the course of history to increase their power and interests. Currently, the West, relying on its capabilities and power in various aspects (particularly with regard to production of idea and creativity), tries to manage this process towards its own interests. It does not mean that weaker countries do not utilize this process, but the level, degree and kind of interests vary from one country to another.
Backgrounds of Globalization
A) Information Revolution β The considerable expansion and development of information technology has turned the world into a global village and it is no more possible just like in the past to close the doors and follow policies hidden from the eyes of others.
The growing power of computers, computer software and revolution in the realm of information technology in various ways has in effect helped the condensation of the world. The transportation of goods, financial and personal currents have become very rapid due to the technological progress (particularly in the field of information technology)[xiii] to the extent that information revolution has prepared the most appropriate grounds for acceleration and signification of globalization.
B) Economic backgrounds β Free flow of capital and goods, considerable increase in the commercial and economic communications on global scale, rapid growth of multinational corporations, dilution of national borders, growth of the volume of financial markets, more and more internationalization of capital, dilution of the indigenous nature and color of the goods, reduction of expenses, and finally integration of industrial and economic markets of the world,[xiv] all and all have played an important role in signification of this process.
The formation of GATT (General Agreement on
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