Essays On Education And Kindred Subjects (Fiscle Part- 11) by Herbert Spencer (best fiction novels to read TXT) 📕

Differentiation Into Religious And Secular--Church And State; While At

The Same Time There Begins To Be Differentiated From Both, That Less

Definite Species Of    Government Which Rules Our Daily Intercourse--A

Species Of    Government Which, As We May See In Heralds' Colleges, In

Books Of    The   Peerage, In Masters Of    Ceremonies, Is Not Without A Certain

Embodiment Of    Its Own. Each Of    These Is Itself Subject To Successive

Differentiations. In The   Course Of    Ages, There Arises, As Among

Ourselves, A Highly Complex Political Organisation Of    Monarch,

Ministers, Lords And Commons, With Their Subordinate Administrative

Departments, Courts Of    Justice, Revenue Offices, Etc., Supplemented In

The Provinces By Municipal Governments, County Governments, Parish Or

Union Governments--All Of    Them More Or Less Elaborated. By Its Side

There Grows Up A Highly Complex Religious Organisation, With Its Various

Grades Of    Officials, From Archbishops Down To Sextons, Its Colleges,

Convocations, Ecclesiastical Courts, Etc.; To All Which Must Be Added

The Ever Multiplying Independent Sects, Each With Its General And Local

Authorities. And At The   Same Time There Is Developed A Highly Complex

Aggregation Of    Customs, Manners, And Temporary Fashions, Enforced By

Society At Large, And Serving To Control Those Minor Transactions

Between Man And Man Which Are Not Regulated By Civil And Religious Law.

Moreover It Is To Be Observed That This Ever Increasing Heterogeneity In

The Governmental Appliances Of    Each Nation, Has Been Accompanied By An

Increasing Heterogeneity In The   Governmental Appliances Of    Different

Nations; All Of    Which Are More Or Less Unlike In Their Political Systems

And Legislation, In Their Creeds And Religious Institutions, In Their

Customs And Ceremonial Usages.

Simultaneously There Has Been Going On A Second Differentiation Of    A

More Familiar Kind; That, Namely, By Which The   Mass Of    The   Community Has

Been Segregated Into Distinct Classes And Orders Of    Workers. While The

Governing Part Has Undergone The   Complex Development Above Detailed, The

Governed Part Has Undergone An Equally Complex Development, Which Has

Resulted In That Minute Division Of    Labour Characterising Advanced

Nations. It Is Needless To Trace Out This Progress From Its First

Stages, Up Through The   Caste Divisions Of    The   East And The   Incorporated

Guilds Of    Europe, To The   Elaborate Producing And Distributing

Organisation Existing Among Ourselves. Political Economists Have Long

Since Described The   Evolution Which, Beginning With A Tribe Whose

Members Severally Perform The   Same Actions Each For Himself, Ends With A

Civilised Community Whose Members Severally Perform Different Actions

For Each Other; And They Have Further Pointed Out The   Changes Through

Which The   Solitary Producer Of    Any One Commodity Is Transformed Into A

Combination Of    Producers Who, United Under A Master, Take Separate Parts

In The   Manufacture Of    Such Commodity. But There Are Yet Other And Higher

Phases Of    This Advance From The   Homogeneous To The   Heterogeneous In The

Industrial Organisation Of    Society.

Long After Considerable Progress Has Been Made In The   Division Of    Labour

Among Different Classes Of    Workers, There Is Still Little Or No Division

Of Labour Among The   Widely Separated Parts Of    The   Community; The   Nation

Continues Comparatively Homogeneous In The   Respect That In Each District

The Same Occupations Are Pursued. But When Roads And Other Means Of

Transit Become Numerous And Good, The   Different Districts Begin To

Assume Different Functions, And To Become Mutually Dependent. The   Calico

Manufacture Locates Itself In This County, The   Woollen-Cloth Manufacture

In That; Silks Are Produced Here, Lace There; Stockings In One Place,

Shoes In Another; Pottery, Hardware, Cutlery, Come To Have Their Special

Towns; And Ultimately Every Locality Becomes More Or Less Distinguished

From The   Rest By The   Leading Occupation Carried On In It. Nay, More,

This Subdivision Of    Functions Shows Itself Not Only Among The   Different

Parts Of    The   Same Nation, But Among Different Nations. That Exchange Of

Commodities Which Free-Trade Promises So Greatly To Increase, Will

Ultimately Have The   Effect Of    Specialising, In A Greater Or Less Degree,

The Industry Of    Each People. So That Beginning With A Barbarous Tribe,

Almost If Not Quite Homogeneous In The   Functions Of    Its Members, The

Progress Has Been, And Still Is, Towards An Economic Aggregation Of    The

Whole Human Race; Growing Ever More Heterogeneous In Respect Of    The

Separate Functions Assumed By Separate Nations, The   Separate Functions

Assumed By The   Local Sections Of    Each Nation, The   Separate Functions

Assumed By The   Many Kinds Of    Makers And Traders In Each Town, And The

Separate Functions Assumed By The   Workers United In Producing Each

Commodity.

Not Only Is The   Law Thus Clearly Exemplified In The   Evolution Of    The

Social Organism, But It Is Exemplified With Equal Clearness In The

Evolution Of    All Products Of    Human Thought And Action, Whether Concrete

Or Abstract, Real Or Ideal. Let Us Take Language As Our First

Illustration.

The Lowest Form Of    Language Is The   Exclamation, By Which An Entire Idea

Is Vaguely Conveyed Through A Single Sound; As Among The   Lower Animals.

That Human Language Ever Consisted Solely Of    Exclamations, And So Was

Strictly Homogeneous In Respect Of    Its Parts Of    Speech, We Have No

Evidence. But That Language Can Be Traced Down To A Form In Which Nouns

And Verbs Are Its Only Elements, Is An Established Fact. In The   Gradual

Multiplication Of    Parts Of    Speech Out Of    These Primary Ones--In The

Differentiation Of    Verbs Into Active And Passive, Of    Nouns Into Abstract

And Concrete--In The   Rise Of    Distinctions Of    Mood, Tense, Person, Of

Number And Case--In The   Formation Of    Auxiliary Verbs, Of    Adjectives,

Adverbs, Pronouns, Prepositions, Articles--In The   Divergence Of    Those

Orders, Genera, Species, And Varieties Of    Parts Of    Speech By Which

Civilised Races Express Minute Modifications Of    Meaning--We See A Change

From The   Homogeneous To The   Heterogeneous. And It May Be Remarked, In

Passing, That It Is More Especially In Virtue Of    Having Carried This

Subdivision Of    Function To A Greater Extent And Completeness, That The

English Language Is Superior To All Others.

Another Aspect Under Which We May Trace The   Development Of    Language Is

The Differentiation Of    Words Of    Allied Meanings. Philology Early

Disclosed The   Truth That In All Languages Words May Be Grouped Into

Families Having A Common Ancestry. An Aboriginal Name Applied

Indiscriminately To Each Of    An Extensive And Ill-Defined Class Of    Things

Or Actions, Presently Undergoes Modifications By Which The   Chief

Divisions Of    The   Class Are Expressed. These Several Names Springing From

The Primitive Root, Themselves Become The   Parents Of    Other Names Still

Further Modified. And By The   Aid Of    Those Systematic Modes Which

Presently Arise, Of    Making Derivations And Forming Compound Terms

Expressing Still Smaller Distinctions, There Is Finally Developed A

Tribe Of    Words So Heterogeneous In Sound And Meaning, That To The

Uninitiated It Seems Incredible That They Should Have Had A Common

Origin. Meanwhile From Other Roots There Are Being Evolved Other Such

Tribes, Until There Results A Language Of    Some Sixty Thousand Or More

Unlike Words, Signifying As Many Unlike Objects, Qualities, Acts.

Yet Another Way In Which Language In General Advances From The

Homogeneous To The   Heterogeneous, Is In The   Multiplication Of    Languages.

Whether As Max Müller And Bunsen Think, All Languages Have Grown From

One Stock, Or Whether, As Some Philologists Say, They Have Grown From

Two Or More Stocks, It Is Clear That Since Large Families Of    Languages,

As The   Indo-European, Are Of    One Parentage, They Have Become Distinct

Through A Process Of    Continuous Divergence. The   Same Diffusion Over The

Earth's Surface Which Has Led To The   Differentiation Of    The   Race, Has

Simultaneously Led To A Differentiation Of    Their Speech: A Truth Which

We See Further Illustrated In Each Nation By The   Peculiarities Of

Dialect Found In Several Districts. Thus The   Progress Of    Language

Conforms To The   General Law, Alike In The   Evolution Of    Languages, In The

Evolution Of    Families Of    Words, And In The   Evolution Of    Parts Of    Speech.

On Passing From Spoken To Written Language, We Come Upon Several Classes

Of Facts, All Having Similar Implications. Written Language Is Connate

With Painting And Sculpture; And At First All Three Are Appendages Of

Architecture, And Have A Direct Connection With The   Primary Form Of    All

Government--The Theocratic. Merely Noting By The   Way The   Fact That

Sundry Wild Races, As For Example The   Australians And The   Tribes Of

South Africa, Are Given To Depicting Personages And Events Upon The

Walls Of    Caves, Which Are Probably Regarded As Sacred Places, Let Us

Pass To The   Case Of    The   Egyptians. Among Them, As Also Among The

Assyrians, We Find Mural Paintings Used To Decorate The   Temple Of    The

God And The   Palace Of    The   King (Which Were, Indeed, Originally

Identical); And As Such They Were Governmental Appliances In The   Same

Sense That State-Pageants And Religious Feasts Were. Further, They Were

Governmental Appliances In Virtue Of    Representing The   Worship Of    The

God, The   Triumphs Of    The   God-King, The   Submission Of    His Subjects, And

The Punishment Of    The   Rebellious. And Yet Again They Were Governmental,

As Being The   Products Of    An Art Reverenced By The   People As A Sacred

Mystery. From The   Habitual Use Of    This Pictorial Representations There

Naturally Grew Up The   But Slightly-Modified Practice Of

Picture-Writing--A Practice Which Was Found Still Extant Among The

Mexicans At The   Time They Were Discovered. By Abbreviations Analogous To

Those Still Going On In Our Own Written And Spoken Language, The   Most

Familiar Of    These Pictured Figures Were Successively Simplified; And

Ultimately There Grew Up A System Of    Symbols, Most Of    Which Had But A

Distant Resemblance To The   Things For Which They Stood. The   Inference

That The   Hieroglyphics Of    The   Egyptians Were Thus Produced, Is Confirmed

By The   Fact That The   Picture-Writing Of    The   Mexicans Was Found To Have

Given Birth To A Like Family Of    Ideographic Forms; And Among Them, As

Among The   Egyptians, These Had Been Partially Differentiated Into The

_Kuriological_ Or Imitative, And The   _Tropical_ Or Symbolic: Which Were,

However, Used Together In The   Same Record. In Egypt, Written Language

Underwent A Further Differentiation: Whence Resulted The   _Hieratic_ And

The _Epistolographic_ Or _Enchorial_: Both Of    Which Are Derived From The

Original Hieroglyphic. At The   Same Time We Find That For The   Expression

Of Proper Names Which Could Not Be Otherwise Conveyed, Phonetic Symbols

Were Employed; And Though It Is Alleged That The   Egyptians Never

Actually Achieved Complete Alphabetic Writing, Yet It Can Scarcely Be

Doubted That These Phonetic Symbols Occasionally Used In Aid Of    Their

Ideographic Ones, Were The   Germs Out Of    Which Alphabetic Writing Grew.

Once Having Become Separate From Hieroglyphics, Alphabetic Writing

Itself Underwent Numerous Differentiations--Multiplied Alphabets Were

Produced; Between Most Of    Which, However, More Or Less Connection Can

Still Be Traced. And In Each Civilised Nation There Has Now Grown Up,

For The   Representation Of    One Set Of    Sounds, Several Sets Of    Written

Signs Used For Distinct Purposes. Finally, Through A Yet More Important

Differentiation Came Printing; Which, Uniform In Kind As It Was At

First, Has Since Become Multiform.

While Written Language Was Passing Through Its Earlier Stages Of

Development, The   Mural Decoration Which Formed Its Root Was Being

Differentiated Into Painting And Sculpture. The   Gods, Kings, Men, And

Animals Represented, Were Originally Marked By Indented Outlines And

Coloured. In Most Cases These Outlines Were Of    Such Depth, And The

Object They Circumscribed So Far Rounded And Marked Out In Its Leading

Parts, As To Form A Species Of    Work Intermediate Between Intaglio And

Bas-Relief. In Other Cases We See An Advance Upon This: The   Raised

Spaces Between The   Figures Being Chiselled Off, And The   Figures

Themselves Appropriately Tinted, A Painted Bas-Relief Was Produced.