Practical Argumentation by George K. Pattee (books for new readers .txt) 📕

a complete argument should contain any statements not admitted by both sides. All ideas that savor of controversy or prejudice have no place in an introduction. The sole purpose of the introduction is to prepare the way for the discussion; if it contains anything in the nature of proof, anything which is not admittedly true, it is no longer pure introduction, but becomes in part discussion. If explanation and proof are thus thrown together indiscriminately, confusion will result. Accordingly the following rule is of great importance:—

Rule VIII. Put into the introduction only statements admitted by both sides.

The following introductions to briefs may well serve as models for student’s work:—

 

FIRST MODEL.

Resolved, That England should permanently retain control of Egypt.

 

NEGATIVE BRIEF.

INTRODUCTION.

I. Because of the recent rapid development of Egypt, the question of the retention of this country is becoming important.

II. The following explanations will aid in the discussion of the problem:—

A. Egypt is that strip of country in the northeastern part of Africa, drained by the Nile and its tributaries.

B. England has an army of occupation in Egypt, and governs it nominally through the Khedive.

C. England has never suggested annexation.

D. England has shut out the interference of France and other European nations.

E. England has practically ruled Egypt as a dependency.

III. The following facts are agreed upon:—

A. Some nation had to take charge of Egypt, for

1. The country was heavily in debt.

2. The people were starving.

B. It is for the advantage of England to retain control of the country.

IV. The conflicting arguments on the question are as follows:—

A. Those who favor the control of Egypt by England have certain beliefs:—

1. They believe that the control of Egypt by England is the only practical solution of the problem.

2. They believe that the present status of affairs is beneficial to Egypt and to the whole world.

B. Those opposed to the control of Egypt by England maintain the following:—

1. They maintain that England rules in a selfish manner.

2. They maintain that Turkey and not England should have control of Egypt.

V. From this conflict of opinion it appears that the points to be determined are:—

A. Is Egypt benefited by the control of England?

B. Is the suzerainty of England over Egypt the only practical solution of the problem?

C. Is the control of Egypt by England a benefit to the whole world?

VI. The negative will attempt to prove that England should not permanently retain Egypt for the following reasons:

A. English control is harmful to Egypt.

B. English control is not the only solution to the Egyptian problem.

C. English control is harmful to other nations.

 

SECOND MODEL.

Resolved, That the President of the United States should be elected by direct popular vote.

 

AFFIRMATIVE BRIEF.

INTRODUCTION.

I. The present method of electing the President of the United States has been both praised and condemned ever since the adoption of the Constitution.

A. Two methods of electing the President are under consideration: the present system whereby the President is elected by the electoral college, and the proposed system whereby the President would be elected by a direct popular vote.

II. These two systems may be described as follows:—

A. The present system has the following characteristics:—

1. Each state elects a number of electors equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the state is entitled in Congress.

2. These electors are chosen as the Legislature of each state may direct.

3. The electors meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for the President.

4. Since the year 1800 the electors have always voted for the candidate nominated by the national party which elected them, though the Constitution does not make this requirement.

5. The ballots are sent in sealed packages to the President of the Senate, who counts them and declares the candidate receiving a majority vote elected.

6. If the electors fail to elect, the House of Representatives chooses a President from the three candidates that receive the greatest number of electoral votes.

B. The proposed system has the following characteristics:—

1. The people vote directly for the President, the candidate receiving a majority of the votes being elected.

2. If there be no majority, the President is elected as under the present system when the electors fail to elect.

III. The real question to be answered is, Should the direct method be substituted for the present method?

A. The comparative value of each method must be judged by the following standards:—

1. Which would be the more practicable?

2. Which would give the voter fuller enjoyment of his right of suffrage?

3. Which method would have the better effect upon the general welfare of the nation?

IV. The affirmative will uphold its side of the proposition by establishing the three following facts:—

A. The direct popular vote system would be more practicable.

B. The direct popular vote system would be more democratic.

C. The direct popular vote system would be better for the general welfare of the nation.

 

EXERCISES.

A. (1) Criticise the following Introduction to a brief, and (2) Write a suitable Introduction to a brief on this subject.

City Location for College.

Introduction.

A. This question is important.

I. The following explanation will aid—

(a) In the understanding, and

(b) In the discussion of the question.

1. Primarily men come to college to study.

2. Men can study better in the country.

3. But is this really the case?

B. A college is an institution of learning higher in rank than a high school or an academy.

C. The issues of the question are the following:

I. Which college location is more favorable to health and intellectual development?

II. Is the student able to enter athletics?

III. Does the student in the lonely country college form more lasting friendships?

IV. Which is the cheaper? Which is the better location?

B. Put into brief form the Introduction found above, Chapter 3, Exercise #7, dealing with Henry Ward Beecher.

C. Put the following Introductions into brief form:—

(1) HOW TRUSTS AFFECT PRICES.

Perhaps no subject in connection with the Industrial Combinations of the last few years has been more discussed than that of their influence upon prices. Opinions have differed widely, the opponents of the Combinations usually believing that they have increased prices materially, their defenders claiming with equal positiveness that they have reduced prices. Differences of opinion have probably originated largely from the fact that the subject has been approached from different points of view; and mistakes have also, in many cases, been made through lack of a careful interpretation of available facts. It by no means follows that the Trusts have lowered prices because prices have fallen within a few years after their formation; nor, on the other hand, that Trusts have raised prices because prices have been increased. Neither does it follow that, because the Industrial Combinations might through their economies lower prices, they have, as a matter of fact, actually done so; nor again that, with the possible ability to increase prices through the exercise of monopolistic power, they have not found it advisable under certain circumstances really to lower them. Any careful discussion of the subject will involve, first, what the influence of combination would enable the Trusts to do regarding prices; second, what the Combinations actually have done; and, third, what effects upon society may be anticipated from any changes in prices made by Industrial Combinations. [Footnote: Jeremiah W. Jenks, North American Review for June, 1901, p. 906.]

(2) Mr. Chairman: This bill (H. R. 17019) which I shall ask this House to pass to-day is one of that general class usually called “private bills”; and while the usage of this House might catalogue it under that head, it is in reality a “public bill,” because it has to do with the interests of many people—indeed, an entire city of 75,000 population.

This bill provides that the legal title to a certain tract of land situated near the city of Tacoma, the title to which is now in the United States Government, shall be transferred to the city of Tacoma.

However, I wish to assure this House that as a matter of fact the Government practically loses nothing by the passage of this bill. I realize that these two statements placed side by side seem to involve a contradiction. Therefore I will make a brief explanation of this matter.

Since the year of 1866 the Government has owned a tract of land adjoining what is now the city of Tacoma; this tract of land contains 637.9 acres. In the year of 1888 the Government gave the city of Tacoma a right or license to use and occupy this land as a city park, but retained the legal title in the Government, because it was thought that at some future time the Government might need to use and occupy this land for military purposes. Therefore you will observe that the present condition of the title to this land is that the legal title is in the Government, with the right in the city to use and occupy the same. This bill, if it shall pass, will simply reverse and place the legal title to this land in the city of Tacoma, with the right remaining in the Government for all time to come to take possession or use and occupy any or all of this land that it might need for military, naval, or lighthouse purposes.

I wish to explain briefly to this House why the passage of this bill and this change in the title is not only fair and just, but the failure to pass this bill would, in my judgment, be very unfair to the 75,000 people in the city of Tacoma. [Footnote: Speech of Hon. Francis W. Cushman of Washington, in the House of Representatives, Feb. 28, 1905.]

(3) GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES. [Footnote: A. T. Hadley, Economics, pp. 390-393.]

By far the most important part of consumers’ cooperation is exemplified in government management of industrial enterprises. This differs in two important particulars from the cooperative agencies already described. In the first place the choice of managers of a government business enterprise is connected with the general political machinery of the country, and regulated by constitutional law instead of by statutes of incorporation. In the second place, these managers are likely to fall back on the taxing powers of the Government to make up any deficit which may arise in the operations of a public business enterprise; or in the converse case to devote any surplus above expenses to the relief of tax burdens elsewhere. A government enterprise is managed by the people who represent, or are supposed to represent, the consumers; but the good or bad economy of its management does not necessarily redound to the profit or loss of those who most use it.

In the beginning of history, the government is the power that controls the army. When tribes were in a state of warfare with one another defense against foreign enemies was a matter of primary importance. No man could let his private convenience stand in the way of effective military operations. The discipline and subordination necessary to wage successful war were all-important; and all the powers necessary to maintain such discipline were entrusted to the leaders of the army.

Somewhat later the military authorities undertook the work of maintaining discipline in time of peace as well as war, and of defining and enforcing the rights of members of the tribe against one another, no less than against foreign enemies. This function was not accorded to them without a struggle. The priests, under whose tutelage the religious sanction for tribal customs had grown up, tried to keep in their own hands the responsibility of upholding these customs and the