Higher Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (popular books to read TXT) 📕

handsomely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap. 4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. 5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger.

+Direction+.—_Recast these sentences, making the reference of the participle clear, and punctuating correctly_:—

+Model+.—_Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen._ Incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing.

Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean.

1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o’clock.

+Direction+.—_Compose sentences in which each of these three participles shall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in an absolute phrase_:—

Buzzing, leaping, waving.

 

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LESSON 40.

VERBS AS NOUNS—INFINITIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.—_I came to see you_. Here the verb see, like the participle, lacks asserting power—_I to see_ asserts nothing. See, following the preposition to, [Footnote: For the discussion of to with the infinitive, see Lesson 134.] names the act and is completed by you, and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is like the second kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from many grammarians has received the same name—some calling both gerunds, and others calling both infinitives. It differs from this participle in form, and in following only the preposition to. Came to see=came for seeing.

This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as a subject or as an object, complement; as, To read good books is profitable; I like to read good books. Here also the form with to is equivalent to the participle form reading. Reading good books is profitable.

As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, without limiting it to a subject, we call it the +Infinitive+ (Lat. infinitus, without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. The infinitive, like the participle, may have what is called an assumed subject. The assumed subject denotes that to which the action or being expressed by the participle or the infinitive belongs.

Frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose, as in the first example given above, and in such cases to expresses relation, and performs its full function as a preposition; but, when the infinitive phrase is used as subject or as object complement, the to expresses no relation. It serves only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the verb.

The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the different complements.

 

Analysis and Parsing.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ or an +adverb modifier+.

1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams.

hot-house | is trap ============|================ The | a to catch | sunbeams -––’–––-

+Oral Analysis+.—To introduces the phrase; catch is the principal word, and sunbeams completes it.

+Parsing+.—To is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the relation, in sense, of the principal word to trap; catch is a form of the verb called infinitive; like a noun, it follows the preposition to and names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by sunbeams.

2. Richelieu’s title to command rested on sublime force of will and decision of character. 3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated. 4. We will strive to please you.

+Explanation+.—The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the predicate.

5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy.

+Explanation+.—_Happy_ completes make and relates to us.

7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.

+Explanation+.—The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adjective hard. To heal = to be healed.

8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and again to sell off and wander. 9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat.

+Explanation+.—The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adverb enough. To eat = to be eaten.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +subject+ or +complement.+

10. To be good is to be great.

To to be good be great -–––––––- | | | is ========|================== |

Explanation.—To, in each of these phrases, shows no relation—it serves merely to introduce. The complements good and great are adjectives used abstractly, having no noun to relate to.

11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 14. He seemed to be innocent.

+Explanation+.—The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an adjective. To be innocent = innocent.

15. The blind men’s dogs appeared to know him. 16. We should learn to govern ourselves.

+Explanation+.—The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement.

17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice.

 

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LESSON 41.

INFINITIVES—CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +after a preposition+ as the +principal term+ of another phrase.

1. My friend is about to leave me.

to leave | me -––’–- about | -–––––- | friend | is ========|===================== My |

+Explanation+.—The preposition about introduces the phrase used as attribute complement; the principal part is the infinitive phrase to leave me.

2. Paul was now about to open his mouth. 3. No way remains but to go on.

+Explanation+.—But is here a preposition.

The +infinitive+ and its +assumed subject+ may form the +principal term+ in a phrase introduced by the preposition +for+.

4. For us to know our faults is profitable.

us

––-

| to | know | faults For | -–—’––— our -–– | | is profitable =============|====================== |

+Explanation+.—For introduces the subject phrase; the principal part of the entire phrase is us to know our faults; the principal word is us, which is modified by the phrase to know our faults.

5. God never made his work for man to mend.

+Explanation+.–The principal term of the phrase for man to mend is not man, but man to mend.

6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +explanatory modifier.+

7. It is easy to find fault.

 

to find | fault -–-‘–– | It (/ ) | is easy =========|=========== |

+Explanation+.—The infinitive phrase to find fault explains the subject it. Read the sentence without it, and you will see the real nature of the phrase. This use of it as a substitute for the real subject is a very common idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow the verb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts.

8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it. 9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 10. It is not all of life to live. 11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +objective complement.+

12. He made me wait.

+Explanation+.—The infinitive wait (here used without to) completes made and relates to me. He made-wait me = He detained me.

See “Introductory Hints,” Lesson 31, and participles used as objective complements, Lesson 37. Compare I saw him do it with I saw him doing it. Compare also He made the stick bend—equaling He made-bend (= bent) the stick—with He made the stick straight—equaling He made-straight (= straightened) the stick.

The relation of these objective complements to me, him, and stick may be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus: I was made to wait; He was seen to do it, He was seen doing it; The stick was made to bend; The stick was made straight.

13.We found the report to be true. [Footnote: Some prefer to treat the report to be true as an object clause because it is equivalent to the clause that the report is true. But many expressions logically equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction; as, I desire his promotion; I desire him to be promoted; I desire that he should be promoted. Besides, to teach that him is the subject, and to be promoted the predicate, of a clause would certainly be confusing.]

to be true -––––- | We | found | report ===|========================== |

14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. [Footnote: Notice the difference in construction between this sentence and the sentence He commanded him to lower the bridge. Him represents the one to whom the command is given, and to lower the bridge is the object complement. This last sentence = He commanded him that he should lower the bridge. Compare He told me to go with He told (to) me a story; also He taught me to read with He taught (to) me reading. In such sentences as (13) and (14) it may not always be expedient to demand that the pupil shall trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding noun and to the predicate verb. If preferred, in such cases, the infinitive and its assumed subject may be treated as a kind of phrase object, equivalent to a clause. This construction is similar to the Latin “accusative with the infinitive.”]

15. I saw the leaves stir. [Footnote: See pages 68 and 69, footnote.]

+Explanation+.—_Stir_ is an infinitive without the to.

16. Being persuaded by Poppaesa, Hero caused his mother, Agrippina, to be assassinated.

 

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LESSON 42.

INFINITIVES—CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +independently+. [Footnote: These infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79.

For the infinitive after as, than, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms; as, have walked, shall walk.]

+Explanation+.—In the diagram the independent element must stand by itself.

1. England’s debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000. 2. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette were executed.

Infinitives and Participles.

MISCELLANEOUS.

4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of the sun. 6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything’s having changed so. 7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze. 8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole, 9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 10. To be, or not to be,—that is the question. 11. I