The Science of Fingerprints by United States. Federal Bureau of Investigation (books to read in a lifetime txt) π
I. ARCH
a. Plain arch. b. Tented arch.
II. LOOP
a. Radial loop. b. Ulnar loop.
III. WHORL
a. Plain whorl. b. Central pocket loop. c. Double loop. d. Accidental whorl.
Illustrations 1 to 10 are examples of the various types of fingerprint patterns.
[Illustration: 1. Plain arch.]
[Illustration: 2. Tented arch.]
[Illustration: 3. Tented arch.]
[Illustration: 4. Loop.]
[Illustration: 5. Loop.]
[Illustration: 6. Central pocket loop.]
[Illustration: 7. Plain whorl.]
[Illustration: 8. Double loop.]
[Illustration: 9. Double loop.]
[Illustration: 10. Accidental.]
Interpretation
Before pattern definition can be understood, it is necessary
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If consideration is given the anatomical or bony structure of the forearm when taking rolled impressions, more uniform impressions will be obtained. The two principal bones of the forearm are known as the radius and the ulna, the former being on the thumb side and the latter on the little finger side of the arm. As suggested by its name, the radius bone revolves freely about the ulna as a spoke of a wheel about the hub. In order to take advantage of the natural movement in making finger impressions, the hand should be rotated from the awkward to the easy position. This requires that the thumbs be rolled toward and the fingers away from the center of the subject's body. This process relieves strain and leaves the fingers relaxed upon the completion of rolling so that they may be lifted easily from the card without danger of slipping which smudges and blurs the prints. Figures 362 and 363 show the proper method of holding a finger for inking and printing a rolled impression.
Figs. 362-363
[Figs. 362-363]
The degree of pressure to be exerted in inking and taking rolled impressions is important, and this may best be determined through experience and observation. It is quite important, however, that the subject be cautioned to relax and refrain from trying to help the operator by exerting pressure as this prevents the operator from gaging the amount needed. A method which is helpful in effecting the relaxation of a subject's hand is that of instructing him to look at some distant object and not to look at his hands. The person taking the fingerprints should stand to the left of the subject when printing the right hand, and to the right of the subject when printing the left hand. In any case, the positions of both subject and operator should be natural and relaxed if the best fingerprints are to be obtained.
To obtain "plain" impressions, all the fingers of the right hand should be pressed lightly upon the inking plate, then pressed simultaneously upon the lower right hand corner of the card in the space provided. The left hand should be similarly printed, and the thumbs of both hands should be inked and printed, without rolling, in the space provided. Figures 364 and 365 show the correct method of taking plain impressions of the fingers and thumbs.
Figs. 364-365
[Figs. 364-365]
CHAPTER IX Problems in the Taking of Inked Fingerprints
From time to time various problems arise concerning the taking of inked impressions. It is believed that these problems can be divided into four phases:
β Mechanical operation
β Temporary disabilities
β Permanent disabilities
β General
Mechanical operationIn order to take good fingerprints, the necessary equipment should be maintained in a neat and orderly manner at all times.
Poor impressions are usually caused by one of the following faults:
1. The use of poor, thin, or colored ink, resulting in impressions which are too light and faint, or in which the ink has run, obliterating the ridges. The best results will be obtained by using heavy black printer's ink, a paste which should not be thinned before using. This ink will dry quickly and will not blur or smear with handling.
2. Failure to clean thoroughly the inking apparatus and the fingers of foreign substances and perspiration, causing the appearance of false markings and the disappearance of characteristics. Windshield cleaner, gasoline, benzine, and alcohol are good cleansing agents, but any fluid may be used. In warm weather each finger should be wiped dry of perspiration before printing.
3. Failure to roll the fingers fully from one side to the other and to ink the whole area from tip to below the first fissure. The result of this is that the focal points of the impressions (the deltas or cores) do not appear. The whole finger surface from joint to tip and from side to side should appear.
4. The use of too much ink, obliterating or obscuring the ridges. If printer's ink is used, just a touch of the tube end to the inking plate will suffice for several sets of prints. It should be spread to a thin, even film by rolling.
5. Insufficient ink, resulting in ridges too light and faint to be counted or traced.
6. Allowing the fingers to slip or twist, resulting in smears, blurs, and false-appearing patterns. The fingers should be held lightly without too much pressure. The subject should be warned not to try to help but to remain passive.
The illustrations numbered 366 through 377 show the results of these faults and show also the same fingers taken in the proper manner.
Illegible inked printsA brief review of the problems of classifying and filing a fingerprint card in the FBI will help to clarify the FBI's policy concerning the processing of "bad" inked fingerprints.
The criminal fingerprint file contains the fingerprints of millions of individuals. The complete classification formula is used. To obtain it, each inked finger must show all the essential characteristics. Because of the immense volume of prints it has become necessary to extend the normal classification formula.
To illustrate this point:
dWdwc
xCdwc
O 32 W OOO 18
I 32 W III
In order to subdivide the 32 over 32 primary still further, the ridge count of the whorl of the right little finger is used to obtain a final classification. The extension above the normal classification formula indicates that each whorl is classified as to the type; namely, plain whorl (W), double loop (D), central pocket loop (C), and accidental (X). Accordingly, it is not enough for the FBI Identification Division to ascertain the general whorl pattern type, but the deltas and core must show in order to obtain the ridge tracing, the type of whorl, and also, in some instances, the ridge count. The complete WCDX extension is outlined in Chapter VI.
Figures 366 to 377 are some examples of improperly and properly taken inked fingerprints.
Figs. 366-369
Figs. 370-373
Figs. 374-377
[Figs. 366-377]
An examination of figure 372 shows that it is a whorl. In order to classify the ridge tracing accurately, however, so that the fingerprint card can be placed in the correct classification, the left delta must show. The approximate ridge tracing for the whorl in figure 372 would be Meeting. An examination of the properly taken fingerprint in figure 373 indicates that the correct ridge tracing is Inner. It follows that the pattern in figure 372 would not have been placed in the proper place in file.
The correct whorl tracing is needed to obtain the complete subsecondary and the major classifications.
It may be noted that both deltas are present in figure 374. This would enable the technical expert to ascertain the correct ridge tracing, Outer. In the core of the whorl, however, there is a heavy amount of ink which makes it impossible to determine the type of whorl with any degree of accuracy. If one were to hazard a guess, it would appear to be a plain whorl. Actually, the correct type of whorl, a double loop, is clearly visible in figure 375.
It can be ascertained that the pattern in figure 376 is a loop, but an accurate ridge count cannot be obtained because the left delta does not appear. The approximate ridge count of this loop is 14 to 16. This approximation is sufficient for a fingerprint expert to place this loop in the "O" group of any finger of the subsecondary. The correct ridge count of this loop is 19, and it appears in illustration 377. The approximate ridge count is not sufficient to place this print properly in the large files of the FBI because in certain general complete classification formulas the accurate ridge count is needed to obtain an extension. These extensions use a smaller grouping of ridge counts to form a valuation table, and in this way, differ from the larger grouping of ridge counts which form the basis of the subsecondary classification. These extensions are called the second subsecondary and the special loop extension and are outlined in chapter VI.
There are two additional points which illustrate the FBI's need for the delta, ridges, and core to show clearly in loops. The first point is set forth: the ridge count of the loop may be needed to obtain the key classification. The key classification is an actual ridge count, and no valuation table is used to obtain a subdivision. The key classification is used as an integral part of the fingerprint filing system. The second point is as follows: the ridge count may be needed to obtain the final classification. The final classification is an actual ridge count, and no valuation table is used to obtain a subdivision. The final classification is used as an integral part of the fingerprint filing system.
The following are just a few examples to illustrate the completeness of the classification formula used in the FBI fingerprint file:
12 M 9 R OIO 11 S 1 R IOI Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final6 17 aW IIO 9 1 U OII Key
Primary
Small Letter
Secondary Subsecondary
Final
8 S 1 Ua II 6 S 1 U III Key
Major
Primary
Small Letter
Secondary (Subsecondary
Extension) Final
SML
SML (Second
Subsecondary) 5 0 5 U IOO 14 I 17 U IOO Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final
245
332 (Special Loop
Extension) 14 M 1 U IOO 16 S 1 U OII Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final
15 I 29 W IOO 19 I 28 W OOI Key Major Primary Secondary Subsecondary Final
These several examples should help to illustrate the FBI's extended classification formulas for classifying and filing fingerprints. The larger collection of fingerprints must of necessity call for a more detailed analysis of all fingerprint characteristic details. The closer examination to obtain further fingerprint subdivisions is dependent on ten legible inked impressions.
The identification officer will understand the problems of accurately classifying and filing fingerprint cards. He knows there is little value in placing a fingerprint card in the FBI's files with only an approximate or an inaccurate classification.
Every fingerprint card filed in the FBI's file is of value to the particular law enforcement agency which forwarded it, as well as to all other law enforcement agencies which rely on its being correctly classified and filed.
Temporary disabilitiesThere are temporary disabilities affecting an individual's hand which are sometimes beyond the control of the identification officer. These can be fresh cuts, or wounds, bandaged
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