Graded Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (ebook reader with highlight function .txt) 📕

In the first sentence above, to me tells to whom the place is endeared; by many associations tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore placed after to me. Try the effect of placing to me last. Phrases, like adjectives, may be of different rank.

Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice that to me, in (_h_) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and that it is set off by the comma.

In (i), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the phrase off by the comma.

Place the phrase of (i) in three other positions, and set it off. When the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle?

Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end?

What does the last phrase of (_j_) modify? Take out the comma, and then see whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies.

In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment.

Such questions as those on (i) above may suggest a mode of easy approach to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons—for emphasis, as in (_h_) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader’s curiosity and holding his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (i) above, or in, “In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached”; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, “In 1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne”; and for other reasons.

Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils discussing fully the effects of all possible changes.

Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:—

1. Victories, indeed, they were. 2. Down came the masts. 3. Here stands the man. 4. Doubtful seemed the battle. 5. Wide open stood the doors. 6. A mighty man is he. 7. That gale I well remember. 8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 9. Blood-red became the sun. 10. Louder waxed the applause. 11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 14. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old Anchises bear. 16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats. 17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared. 18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable.

Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order, and explain the effect of the change:—

19. He could not avoid it. 20. He would not escape. 21. I must go. 22. He ended his tale here. 23. It stands written so. 24. She seemed young and sad. 25. I will make one more effort to save you. 26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 27. I came into the world helpless. 28. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.

ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico? 32. Whom did you see? 33. What is poetry? 34. Which course will you choose? 35. Why are the days shorter in winter? 36. When was America discovered? 37. Were you there? 38. Has the North Pole been reached?

+Observation Lesson+.—When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above.

When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34).

When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and

(36).

When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38).

The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in analysis.

REVIEW—COMPOSITION.

We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be suggested.

RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS—PUNCTUATION.

The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:—

(a) The words golden and oriole are pleasant to the ear. (b) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (_c_) Use words that are current. (_d_) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (e) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France. (f) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks. (_g_) Glass bends easily when it is hot. (_h_) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.

The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:—

In (a) the application of words is limited, or restricted, to the two words mentioned; in (_c_) words is restricted to a certain kind. In (b) and (_d_) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply add information. In (e) the participial phrase restricts the application of country to one particular country; but in (f) the phrase describes without limiting. The omission of the comma in (_g_) shows that Glass bends easily is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is restricted to a certain time or condition. When it is hot is essential to the intended meaning. The punctuation of (_h_) shows that the speaker does not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If (_h_) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the comma.

Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to the sense. In such expressions as I myself, we boys, the explanatory words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or into adjective phrases.

Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases.

ADVERB CLAUSES.

An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its parts, or after it; as, “When it is hot, glass bends easily;” “Glass, when it is hot, bends easily;” “Glass bends easily when it is hot.” Notice the punctuation of these examples.

Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the comparatives as and than are usually found in an abbreviated form; as, “You are as old as he (_is old_);” “You are older than I (_am old_).” Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb clauses.

NOUN CLAUSES.

Noun clauses may be contracted; as, “That we should obey is necessary” = “Obedience is necessary,” or, “To obey is necessary;” “I can hardly realize that my friend is gone” = “I can hardly realize my friend’s being gone.” By substituting it for the subject clause, this clause maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, “It is necessary that we should obey.” The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, “That my friend is gone, I can hardly realize.” The noun clause may be made prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,”His story, we believe, is exaggerated.”

Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that are quotations need special treatment.

NOUN CLAUSES—QUOTATIONS.

We suggest the following observation lesson:—

1. Goldsmith says, “Learn the luxury of doing good.” 2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. 3. “The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out, ‘Where is it?’” 4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking where it is. 5. “To read without reflecting,” says Burke, “is like eating without digesting.” 6. May we not find “sermons in stones and good in everything”? 7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: “Books are embalmed minds.” 8. We must ask, What are we living for? 9. We must ask what we are living for.

+Observation Lesson+.—Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this copied passage (quotation), are called Quotation Marks.

Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed in both? Which quotation would you call direct? Which, indirect?

Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation contains another quotation inclosed within single marks. Notice the order of the marks at the end of (3).

Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred to? Which question would you call direct? Which, indirect? Name every difference in the form of these.

In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked?

Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter?

In (7) a Colon precedes the quotation to show that it is formally introduced.

In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that, like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the differences between (8) and (9).

In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed. Point out illustrations above.

Sum up