Graded Lessons in English by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg (ebook reader with highlight function .txt) 📕

into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital letter (5) proper names and words derived from them, (6) names of things personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the words I and O, and (9) numbers in the Roman notation. [Footnote: Small letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters, etc., are made.]

+Examples+.—1. The judicious are always a minority.

2. Honor and shame from no condition rise; Act well your part, there all the honor lies. 3. The question is, “Can law make people honest?” 4. Paintings are useful for these reasons: 1. They please; 2. They instruct. 5. The heroic Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay. 6. Next, Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. 7. The Atlantic ocean beat Mrs. Partington. 8. The use of O and oh I am now to explain. 9. Napoleon II. never came to the throne.

+Period+.—Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, and (3) a number written in the Roman notation.

For examples see 1, 7, and 9 in the sentences above.

+Interrogation Point+.—Every direct interrogative sentence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point.

+Example+.—King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets?

+Exclamation Point+.—All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point.

+Example+.—Oh! bloodiest picture in the book of time! +_Comma_+.—Set off by the comma (1) a phrase out of its natural order or not closely connected with the word it modifies; (2) an explanatory modifier that does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it; (3) a participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless restrictive; (4) the adjective clause, when not restrictive; (5) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies; (6) a word or phrase independent or nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced into a sentence, unless formally introduced; (8) a noun clause used as an attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases, unless all the conjunctions are expressed; (11) independent clauses, when short and closely connected; and (12) the parts of a compound predicate and of other phrases, when long or differently modified.

+_Examples_+.—l. In the distance, icebergs look like masses of burnished metal. 2. Alexandria, the capital of Lower Egypt, is an ill-looking city. 3. Labor, diving deep into the earth, brings up long-hidden stores of coal. 4. The sun, which is the center of our system, is millions of miles from us. 5. When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 6. Gentlemen, this, then, is your verdict. 7. God said, “Let there be light.” 8. Nelson’s signal was, “England expects every man to do his duty.” 9. Rubbers, or overshoes, are worn to keep the feet dry. 10. The sable, the seal, and the otter furnish us rich furs. 11. His dark eye flashed, his proud breast heaved, his cheek’s hue came and went. 12. Flights of birds darken the air, and tempt the traveler with the promise of abundant provisions.

+_Semicolon_+.—Independent clauses (1) when slightly connected, or (2) when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon. Use the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common dependence on something that precedes or follows; and (4) before as, viz., to wit., namely, i. e., and that is, when they introduce examples or illustrations.

+_Examples_+.—1. The furnace blazes; the anvil rings; the busy wheels whirl round. 2. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. 3. He drew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour; his trial before Pilate; his ascent of Calvary; his crucifixion and death. 4. Gibbon writes, “I have been sorely afflicted with gout in the hand; to wit, laziness.”

+Colon+.—Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon; and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced.

+_Examples_+.—l. Canning’s features were handsome; his eye, though deeply ensconced under his eyebrows, was full of sparkle and gayety: the features of Brougham were harsh in the extreme. 2. To Lentullus and Gellius bear this message: “Their graves are measured.”

+_Dash_+.—Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or figures, and (2) of such words as as, namely, or that is, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, or another takes its place; and (4) before a word or phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their force.

+_Examples_+.—1. In M––w, v. 3-11, you may find the “beatitudes.” 2. There are two things certain in this world—taxes and death. 3. I said—I know not what. 4. I never would lay down my arms—_never_— NEVER—+NEVER+. 5. Fulton started a steamboat–-he called it the Clermont—on the Hudson in 1807. 6. My dear Sir,—I write this letter for information.

+_Marks of Parenthesis_+.—Marks of parenthesis may be used to enclose what has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence.

+Example+.—The noun (Lat. nomen, a name) is the first part of speech.

+_Apostrophe_+.—Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other cases.

+_Examples_+.—1. Bo’t of John Jones 10 lbs. of butter. 2. What word is there one-half of which is p’s? 3. He washed the disciples’ feet.

+_Hyphen_+.—Use the hyphen (-) (1) between the parts of compound words that have not become consolidated, and (2) between syllables when a word is divided.

+_Examples_+.—1. Work-baskets are convenient. 2. Divide basket thus: bas-ket.

+Quotation Marks+—Use quotation marks to enclose a copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, the latter is enclosed within single marks.

+_Example_+–The sermon closed with this sentence: “God said, ‘Let there be light.’”

+_Brackets_+.—Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting another’s words, you insert by way of explanation or correction.

+_Example_+.—The Psalmist says, “I prevented [anticipated] the dawning of the morning.”

SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS.

+_To the Teacher_+.—It is very profitable to exercise pupils in combining simple statements into complex and compound sentences, and in resolving complex and compound sentences into simple statements. In combining statements, it is an excellent practice for the pupil to contract, expand, transpose, and to substitute different words. They thus learn to express the same thought in a variety of ways. Any reading-book or history will furnish good material for such practice. A few examples are given below.

+Direction+.—Combine in as many ways as possible each of the following groups of sentences:—

+_Example_+.—This man is to be pitied. He has no friends.

1. This man has no friends, and he is to be pitied. 2. This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends. 3. Because this man has no friends, he is to be pitied. 4. This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied. 5. This man, having no friends, is to be pitied. 6. This man, without friends, is to be pitied. 7. This friendless man deserves our pity.

1. The ostrich is unable to fly. It has not wings in proportion to its body. 2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Nile. 3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend, from the brain. They spread over the whole body. 4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known to have been printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the patronage of John Paust. He published it in 1455. He published it in the city of Mentz. 5. The human body is a machine. A watch is delicately constructed. This machine is more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is complicated. This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine is wonderful. This machine is more wonderful.

You see that short statements closely related in meaning may be improved by being combined. But young writers frequently use too many ands and other connectives, and make their sentences too long.

Long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of the parts are not clear.

As clauses may be joined to form sentences, so sentences may be united to make paragraphs.

A +paragraph+ is a sentence or a group of related sentences developing one point or one division of a general subject.

The first word of a paragraph should begin a new line, and should be written a little farther to the right than the first words of other lines.

+Direction+.—Combine the following statements into sentences and paragraphs, and make of them a complete composition:—

Water is a liquid. It is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. It covers about three-fourths of the surface of the earth. It takes the form of ice. It takes the form of snow. It takes the form of vapor. The air is constantly taking up water from rivers, lakes, oceans, and from damp ground. Cool air contains moisture. Heated air contains more moisture. Heated air becomes lighter. It rises. It becomes cool. The moisture is condensed into fine particles. Clouds are formed. They float across the sky. The little particles unite and form rain-drops. They sprinkle the dry fields. At night the grass and flowers become cool. The air is not so cool. The warm air touches the grass and flowers. It is chilled. It loses a part of its moisture. Drops of dew are formed. Water has many uses. Men and animals drink it. Trees and plants drink it. They drink it by means of their leaves and roots. Water is a great purifier. It cleanses our bodies. It washes our clothes. It washes the dust from the leaves and the flowers. Water is a great worker. It floats vessels. It turns the wheels of mills. It is converted into steam. It is harnessed to mighty engines. It does the work of thousands of men and horses.

+_To the Teacher_+.—Condensed statements of facts, taken from some book not in the hands of your pupils, may be read to them, and they may be required to expand and combine these and group them into paragraphs.

LETTER-WRITING.

In writing a letter there are six things to consider—the Heading, the Introduction, the Body of the Letter, the Conclusion, the Folding, and the Superscription.

THE HEADING.

+_Parts_+.—The Heading consists of the name of the +Place+ at which the letter is written, and the +_Date_+. If you write from a city, give the door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, or any other well-known institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street. If you write from a village or other country place, give your post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the state.

The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.

+_How Written_+.—Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top of the page—on the first ruled line of commercial note—and a little to the left of the middle of the page. If the Heading is very short, it may stand on one line. If it occupies more than one line, the second line should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third