Problems of Life and Mind. Second series by George Henry Lewes (best contemporary novels TXT) 📕

113. So great and manifold are the difficulties of the search, that although hundreds of patient observers have during the last forty years been incessantly occupied with the elementary structure of the nervous system, very little has been finally established. Indeed, we may still repeat Lotze’s sarcasm, that “microscopic theories have an average of five years’ duration.” This need not damp our ardor, though it ought to check a too precipitate confidence. Nothing at the present moment needs more recognition by the student than that the statements confidently repeated in text-books and monographs are very often for the most part only ingenious guesses, in which Observation is to Imagination what the bread was to the sack in Falstaff’s tavern bill. Medical men and psychologists ought to be warned against founding theories of disease, or of mental processes, on such very insecure bases; and physiological students will do well to remember the large admixture of Hypothesis which every description of the nervous system now contains. Not that the potent aid of Hypothesis is to be undervalued; but its limits must be defined. It may be used as a finger-post, not as a foundation. It may suggest a direction in which truth may be sought; it cannot take the place of Observation. It may link together scattered facts; it must not take the place of a fact. We are glad of corks until we have learned to swim. We are glad of a suggestion which will for the nonce fill up the gaps left by observation, and hold the facts intelligibly together. And both as suggestion and colligation, Hypothesis is indispensable. Indeed, every discovery is a verified hypothesis; and there is no discovery until verification has been gained: up to this point it was a guess, which might have been erroneous—a torchbearer sent out to look for a missing child in one direction, while the child was wandering in another; only when he finds the child can we acknowledge that the torchbearer pursued the right path. Hypothesis satisfies the intellectual need of an explanation, but we must be wary lest we accept this fulfilment of a need as equivalent to an enlargement of knowledge; we must not accept explanation as demonstration, and suppose that because we can form a mental picture of the possible stages of an event, therefore this picture represents the actual stages. Let us be alert, forewarned against the tendency to seek evidence in support of a conclusion, instead of seeking to unfold the conclusion step by step from the evidence. To seek for evidence in support of a guess is very different from seeking it in support of a conclusion; which latter practice is like that of people asking advice, and only following it when it chimes in with their desires.

114. Is not the warning needed, when we find anatomists guided by certain “physiological postulates,” and consequently seeing only what these postulates demand? For example, there is the postulate of “isolated conduction,” which is said to require that every nerve-fibre should pursue its course singly from centre to periphery. Accordingly the fibres are described as unbranched. Whatever may be the demand of the postulate, or the felt necessity of the deduction, the fact is that nerve-fibres do branch off during their course at various points; nay, it is doubtful whether any lengthy fibre is unbranched. Other postulates demand what fact plainly denies. It is said to be “necessary” that every cell should have at least two fibres, and that sensory and motor nerves should be directly connected through their respective cells. These things cannot be seen, but they are described with unhesitating precision. Diagrams are published in which the sensory fibres pass into the cells of the posterior horn of the spinal cord, and these cells send off prolongations to the cells of the anterior horn, and thence the motor fibres pass out to the muscles: an absolutely impossible arrangement, according to our present data! Again, the postulate that nerve-force originates in the cells, and that nerve-functions depend on cells, required that the cells should be most abundant where the function was most energetic. Of course they were found most abundant in the required places—no notice whatever being taken of the facts which directly contradicted the deduction.

115. Among the serious obstacles to research we must reckon this tendency to substitute Imaginary Anatomy for Objective Anatomy. I am conscious of the tendency in myself, as I note it in others; and have constantly to struggle against it, though not perhaps always aware of it. Many a time have I had to relinquish plausible explanations, which would have supported my speculations could I but have believed that they represented the facts; but being unable to believe this, I had to remember that hypotheses and explanations appear and disappear—only the solid fact lives. If there is one lesson emphatically taught by Philosophy, it is the unwisdom of founding our conclusions on our desires rather than on the objective facts.

116. In the following pages a constantly critical attitude is preserved: this is simply to keep active the sense of how much is still needed to be done before a satisfactory theory of the nervous system can be worked out. The objective difficulties are greater than in any other department of Anatomy. The problem is to form a precise picture of what the organites are, and of how they are arranged in the living tissue; yet our present means of investigation involve as a preliminary that we should alter that arrangement, removing some elements of the tissue, and changing the state of others, without knowing what were their precise state and arrangement before the change. Place a piece of nerve-tissue under the microscope, without having subjected it to various mechanical and chemical operations, and you can see next to nothing of its structure. You must tear the parts asunder, and remove the fat and nerve-sap (plasmode) before you can see anything; you must coagulate the albumen, and otherwise chemically alter the substances before a thin section can be made; you must get rid of the tissues in which it is embedded, without knowing what are the connections thus destroyed. Living neurine has no greater consistence than cream, often no greater than oil. How, then, can thin sections be made until this viscid substance has been hardened by alcohol or acids? But substances thus acted on lose their constituent water, which can no more be removed without alteration of their structure, than it can be removed from certain salts without destruction of their special properties. Losing their water alone, they become deformed. They lose much more. Sometimes the loss can be estimated, as in the case of the hyaline substance investing the nucleus during the process of segmentation in embryonic cells, which may be seen to disappear when a weak solution of acid is applied.137 At other times we are unable to say what has disappeared. Under different modes of preparation very different appearances are observed, and anatomists are accordingly at variance. Yet unless some hardening method be adopted little can be seen! Stilling, who has given his life to the study, declares that no results are reliable which are obtained from the unprepared tissue, because the mechanical isolation of the elements destroys the textural arrangement.138 There is one method of hardening, and only one, which we can be certain does not chemically alter the structure, and that is the freezing method. The experiments of Dr. Weir Mitchell and Dr. Richardson prove this, because they prove that the brain of the living animal may be frozen and frozen again and again, yet recover its vital activity when thawed. Professor Rutherford has invented an admirable instrument for making sections of the frozen tissue, of any delicacy that may be required; but with the thinnest section there will still be certain difficulties of observation, unless the tissue has undergone a staining process. Whatever is seen, however, in the frozen tissue is to be accepted as normal.

117. Two points must be determined before reliance can be placed on observations of tissues chemically acted on: First, we must prove that the forms now visible existed before the preparation—the chemical action merely unveiling them; secondly, we must estimate the part played by the elements which have been removed in order to make the rest visible. We know, for example, that the nucleus often exists in the cell, though an acid may be needed to make it visible. We also know that cells which during life are quite free from visible granules are distinctly granulated after death, even without external chemical action. Imagine the explanation of a steam-engine to be attempted by first taking it to pieces, and examining these pieces, with no account of the coals and steam which had previously been removed in order to facilitate the examination. When we know the part played by coals and steam, we may disregard these items of the active machine. So when we know the part played by water, fat, amorphous substance, and plasmode, we may describe nerve-tissue without taking these into account.

118. “You have convinced me,” said Rasselas to Imlac, “that it is impossible to be a poet.” My readers may, perhaps, infer from this enumeration of the difficulties that a knowledge of the minute anatomy of the nervous system is impossible. Not so; but a knowledge of these difficulties should impress us with the necessity for a vigilant scepticism, and the search after new methods. If the difficulties are fairly faced, they may be finally overcome. What we must resign ourselves to at present is the conviction that our knowledge is not sufficiently accurate to be employed as a basis of deduction in the explanation of physiological and psychological processes.139

119. Having said so much, let me add that there are some positive materials, and these yearly receive additions. The organites are described with a general agreement as to their composition and structure—although there is much that is hypothetical even here. Neurine is known under two aspects: the amorphous and the figured. The figured, which is the better known, comprises cells of different kinds, fibres and fibrils. The amorphous, more generally called Neuroglia, or nerve-cement, is less understood, and is indeed by many authorities excluded altogether from the nerve-tissue proper, and relegated to the class of connective tissues.

120. It is unfortunate that the term nerve-cell is applied to organites of very variable structure. Nerve-cell is a generic term of which the species are many; under it are designated organites in different stages—as infancy, childhood, and manhood are all included under Man. Most commonly by nerve-cell is understood the ganglionic corpuscle, conspicuous in its size and its prolongations, such as it appears in the great centres, and in ganglia. It also designates smaller different organites, sometimes called “nuclei” (Kerne), sometimes grains (Körner). There would be advantage in designating the earlier stages as neuroblasts, reserving the word cells for the more developed forms. Such a distinction would facilitate the discussion of whether nerve-fibres had or had not their origin in cells; because while I, for one, see very coercive evidence against the accepted notion that all the fibres have their origin in the processes of ganglionic corpuscles, I see no reason to doubt that both fibres and corpuscles have their origin in neuroblasts. Of this anon.

The cell is a composite organite, the primary element being a microscopic mass of protoplasm, or what may more conveniently be termed neuroplasm. It appears as finely granulated and striated or fibrillated substance on a hyaline ground, with water, fat, and diffused pigment in varying quantities. The cell contains a nucleus, and nucleolus—sometimes two. Like other animal cells, it sometimes has a distinct cell-wall, sometimes