Problems of Life and Mind. Second series by George Henry Lewes (best contemporary novels TXT) 📕

the skin of the rat’s back, the tip of the tail being inserted under the skin, its base rising into the air, so that there is here an inversion of the normal position. In the course of time Sensibility gradually reappears in this grafted tail; and at the end of about twelve months the rat not only feels when the tail is pinched, but knows where the irritation lies, and turns round to bite the pincers.186 Here we have a case of a sensory nerve reversed, yet transmitting stimulation from the base to the tip of the tail, instead of from the tip to the base, as in a normal organ. Vulpian and Philippeaux having divided two nerves, united the central end of the sensory nerve with the peripheral end of the motor nerve; when the organic union was complete, and each nerve was formed out of the halves of two different nerves, the effect of pinching one of these was to produce simultaneously pain and movement, showing that the excitation was transmitted upwards to the centre, and downwards to the muscles.187 It may be compared with a train of gunpowder having a loaded cannon at one end and a bundle of straw at the other, when if a spark be dropped anywhere on this train, the flame runs along in both directions, explodes the cannon, and sets alight the straw.

167. Indeed we have only to remember the semi-liquid nature of the axis cylinder to see at once that it must conduct a wave of motion as readily in one direction as in another. A liquid transmits waves in any direction according to the initial impulse. There is consequently no reason for asserting that because the usual direction is centripetal in a sensory nerve, and centrifugal in a motor nerve, each nerve is incapable of transmitting excitations in both directions. And I think many phenomena are more intelligible on the assumption that neural transmission is in both directions. If the eye is fixed steadfastly on a particular color during some minutes, the retina becomes exhausted, and no longer responds to the stimulus of that color: here the stimulation is of course centripetal. But if instead of looking intently on the color, the mind (in complete absence of light) pictures it intently, this cerebral image is equally capable of exhausting the retina; and unless we believe that color is a cerebral, not a retinal phenomenon (which is my private opinion), we must accept this as proof of a centrifugal excitation of a sensory tract. Another illustration may be drawn from the muscular sense. There may be a few sensory fibres distributed to muscles; but even if the observations of Sachs188 should be confirmed, I do not think that all muscle sensations can be assigned to these fibres, but that the so-called motor fibres must also co-operate. When a nerve acts upon a muscle, the muscle reacts on the nerve; and when a nerve acts on a centre, the centre reacts on the nerve. The agitation of the central tissue cannot leave the nerve which blends with it unaffected; the agitation of the muscular tissue must also by a reversal of the “current” affect its nerve. Laplace points out how the movement of the hand which holds a suspended chain is propagated along the chain to its terminus, and if when the chain is at rest we once more set that terminus in motion, the vibration will remount to the hand.189 The contraction of a muscle will not only stimulate the sensory fibres distributed through it, but also, I conceive, stimulate the very motor fibres which caused the contraction, since these fibres blend with the muscle.190

168. To understand this, it is necessary to remember that the stimulation of a nerve does not arise191 in the changed state of that nerve, but in the process of change, i. e. the disturbance of the tension. The duration of the stimulation is that of the changing process, and the intensity increases with the differential of the velocity of change. So that when a nerve which has been excited by a change of state returns to its former state, this return—being another change—is a new excitation. That it is not the changed state, but the change, which is operative, explains the fact noted by Brown Séquard: a frog poisoned by strychnine, when decapitated and all respiration destroyed, will remain motionless for days together, if carefully protected from all external excitation; but its nervous system is in such a state of tension all this time that the first touch produces general convulsions. Freusberg also notes that if a brainless frog be suspended by the lower jaw, and one foot be pinched, the other leg is moved at first, then quickly droops again, and remains at rest until the pincers are removed from the pinched foot, when suddenly all four legs are violently moved by the stimulation which the simple removal produces. Let us also add the well-known and significant fact that if a nerve be divided rapidly by a sharp razor, neither sensation nor motion is produced, because the intensity of a stimulus being, to speak mathematically, the function of the changing process, the duration of the process is in this case too brief. On the same ground the application of a stimulus will excite no movement, if the force be very slowly increased from zero to an intensity which will destroy the nerve; but at any stage a sudden increase will excite a movement.

169. We may group all the foregoing considerations in this formula:

Law I. Every neural process is due to a sudden disturbance of the molecular tension. The liberated energy is discharged along the lines of least resistance.

The conditions which determine the lines of least resistance are manifold and variable. The nervous system is a continuous whole, each part of which is connected with diverse organs; but in spite of this anatomical diversity, the deeper uniformity causes the activity of each part to depend on and involve the activity of every other, more or less. By “more or less” is meant, that although the excitation of one part necessarily affects the state of all the others, because of their structural community, so that each sensation and each motion really represents a change in the whole organism, yet the responsive discharge determined in each organ by this change, depends on the tension of the organ and its centre at that moment. A bad harvest really affects the whole nation; but its effect is conspicuous on the welfare of the poor rather than of the rich, although the price of bread is the same to rich and poor. Nervous centres, and muscular or glandular organs, differ in their excitability; one condition of this greater excitability being the greater frequency with which they are called into activity. The medulla oblongata is normally more excitable than the medulla spinalis; the heart more than the limbs. Hence a stimulus which will increase the respiration and the pulse may have no appreciable effect on the limbs; but some effect it must have.

170. Imagine all the nerve-centres to be a connected group of bells varying in size. Every agitation of the connecting wire will more or less agitate all the bells; but since some are heavier than others, and some of the cranks less movable, there will be many vibrations of the wire which will cause some bells to sound, others simply to oscillate without sounding, and others not sensibly to oscillate. Even some of the lighter bells will not ring if any external pressure arrests them; or if they are already ringing, the added impulses, not being rhythmically timed, will arrest the ringing. So the stimulus of a sensory nerve agitates its centre, and through it the whole system; usually the stimulation is mainly reflected on the group of muscles innervated from that centre, because this is the readiest path of discharge; but it sometimes does not mainly discharge along this path, the line of least resistance lying in another direction; and the discharge never takes this path without also irradiating upwards and downwards through the central tissue. Thus irradiated, it falls into the general stream of neural processes; and according to the state in which the various centres are at the moment it modifies their activity. A nervous shock—physical or mental—sensibly affects all the organs. A severe wound paralyzes, for a time, parts far removed from the wounded spot. A blow on the stomach will arrest the heart; a fright will do the same. Terror relaxes the limbs, or sets them trembling; so does a concussion: if a frog be thrown violently on the ground, all its muscles are convulsed; but if the nerves of one limb be divided before the shock, the muscles of that limb will not be convulsed.

171. We are apt to regard the discharge on the moving organs as if that were the sole response of a stimulation; but although the most conspicuous, it is by no means the most important effect. Besides exciting the muscles, more or less, every neural process has its influence on the organic processes of secretion, and effects thermal and electrical changes. Schiff has demonstrated that every sensation raises the temperature of the brain; Nothnagel, that irritation of a sensory nerve causes constriction of the cerebral arteries, and hence cerebral anæmia. Brown Séquard and Lombard find the temperature of a limb raised when its skin is pinched, and lowered when the skin elsewhere is pinched. Georges Pouchet has shown that fishes change color according to the brightness or darkness of the ground over which they remain; and these changes are dependent on nervous stimulation, mainly through the eye, division of the optic nerves preventing the change. These are so many a posteriori confirmations of what a priori may be foreseen. They are cited here merely to enforce the consideration, seldom adequately kept before the mind, that every neural process is a change which causes other changes in the whole organism.

STIMULI.

172. Stimuli are classed as external and internal, or physical and physiological. The one class comprises all the agencies in the External Medium which appreciably affect the organism; the other class all the changes in the organism which appreciably disturb the equilibrium of any organ. Although the pressure of the atmosphere, for example, unquestionably affects the organism, and determines organic processes, it is not reckoned as a stimulus unless the effect become appreciable under sudden variations of the pressure. In like manner the blood is not reckoned among the internal stimuli, except when sudden variations in its composition, or its circulation, determine appreciable changes. Because the external stimuli, and the so-called Senses which respond to them, are more conspicuous than the internal stimuli and the Systemic Senses, they have unfortunately usurped too much attention. The massive influence of the Systemic Sensations in determining the desires, volitions, and conceptions of mankind has not been adequately recognized. Yet every one knows the effect of impure air, or a congested liver, in swaying the mental mood; and how a heavy meal interferes with muscular and mental exertion.192 What is conspicuous in such marked effects, is less conspicuously, but not less necessarily, present in slighter stimuli.

173. A constant pressure on the tympanum excites no sound; only a rhythmic alternation of pressures will excite the sensation. A constant temperature is not felt; only changes in temperature. If Light and Sound were as uniform as the circulation of the blood, or the pressure of the atmosphere, we should be seldom conscious of the existence of these stimuli. But because the changes are varied and marked, our attention is necessarily arrested by