A Short History of Astronomy by Arthur Berry (best novels for students .TXT) 📕

Several attempts were made to explain and to connect these various observations, but the first satisfactory and tolerably complete explanation was given in 1859 by Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) of Heidelberg, who at first worked in co-operation with the chemist Bunsen.

Kirchhoff shewed that a luminous solid or liquid—or, as we now know, a highly compressed gas—gives a continuous spectrum; whereas a substance in the gaseous state gives a spectrum consisting of bright lines (with or without a faint continuous spectrum), and these bright lines depend on the particular substance and are characteristic of it. Consequently the presence of a particular substance in the form of gas in a hot body can be inferred from the presence of its characteristic lines in the spectrum of the light. The dark lines in the solar spectrum were explained by the fundamental principle—often known as Kirchhoff’s law—that a body’s capacity for stopping or absorbing light of a particular wave-length is proportional to its power, under like conditions, of giving out the same light. If, in particular, light from a luminous solid or liquid body, giving a continuous spectrum, passes through a gas, the gas absorbs light of the same wave-length as that which it itself gives out: if the gas gives out more light of these particular wave-lengths than it absorbs, then the spectrum is crossed by the corresponding bright lines; but if it absorbs more than it gives out, then there is a deficiency of light of these wave-lengths and the corresponding parts of the spectrum appear dark—that is, the spectrum is crossed by dark lines in the same position as the bright lines in the spectrum of the gas alone. Whether the gas absorbs more or less than it gives out is essentially a question of temperature, so that if light from a hot solid or liquid passes through a gas at a higher temperature a spectrum crossed by bright lines is the result, whereas if the gas is cooler than the body behind it dark lines are seen in the spectrum.

300. The presence of the Fraunhofer lines in the spectrum of the sun shews that sunlight comes from a hot solid or liquid body (or from a highly compressed gas), and that it has passed through cooler gases which have absorbed light of the wave-lengths corresponding to the dark lines. These gases must be either round the sun or in our atmosphere: and it is not difficult to shew that, although some of the Fraunhofer lines are due to our atmosphere, the majority cannot be, and are therefore caused by gases in the atmosphere of the sun.

For example, the metal sodium when vaporised gives a spectrum characterised by two nearly coincident bright lines in the yellow part of the spectrum; these agree in position with a pair of dark lines (known as D) in the spectrum of the sun (see fig. 97); Kirchhoff inferred therefore that the atmosphere of the sun contains sodium. By comparison of the dark lines in the spectrum of the sun with the bright lines in the spectra of metals and other substances, their presence or absence in the solar atmosphere can accordingly be ascertained. In the case of iron—which has an extremely complicated spectrum—Kirchhoff succeeded in identifying 60 lines (since increased to more than 2,000) in its spectrum with dark lines in the spectrum of the sun. Some half-dozen other known elements were also identified by Kirchhoff in the sun.

The inquiry into solar chemistry thus started has since been prosecuted with great zeal. Improved methods and increased care have led to the construction of a series of maps of the solar spectrum, beginning with Kirchhoff’s own, published in 1861-62, of constantly increasing complexity and accuracy. Knowledge of the spectra of the metals has also been greatly extended. At the present time between 30 and 40 elements have been identified in the sun, the most interesting besides those already mentioned being hydrogen, calcium, magnesium, and carbon.

The first spectroscopic work on the sun dealt only with the light received from the sun as a whole, but it was soon seen that by throwing an image of the sun on to the slit of the spectroscope by means of a telescope the spectrum of a particular part of the sun’s surface, such as a spot or a facula, could be obtained; and an immense number of observations of this character have been made.

301. Observations of total eclipses of the sun have shewn that the bright surface of the sun as we ordinarily see it is not the whole, but that outside this there is an envelope of some kind too faint to be seen ordinarily but becoming visible when the intense light of the sun itself is cut off by the moon. A white halo of considerable extent round the eclipsed sun, now called the corona, is referred to by Plutarch, and discussed by Kepler (chapter VII., § 145) Several 18th century astronomers noticed a red streak along some portion of the common edge of the sun and moon, and red spots or clouds here and there (cf. chapter X., § 205). But little serious attention was given to the subject till after the total solar eclipse of 1842. Observations made then and at the two following eclipses of 1851 and 1860, in the latter of which years photography was for the first time effectively employed, made it evident that the red streak represented a continuous envelope of some kind surrounding the sun, to which the name of chromosphere has been given, and that the red objects, generally known as prominences, were in general projecting parts of the chromosphere, though sometimes detached from it. At the eclipse of 1868 the spectrum of the prominences and the chromosphere was obtained, and found to be one of bright lines, shewing that they consisted of gas. Immediately afterwards M. Janssen, who was one of the observers of the eclipse, and Sir J. Norman Lockyer independently devised a method whereby it was possible to get the spectrum of a prominence at the edge of the sun’s disc in ordinary daylight, without waiting for an eclipse; and a modification introduced by Sir William Huggins in the following year (1869) enabled the form of a prominence to be observed spectroscopically. Recently (1892) Professor G. E. Hale of Chicago has succeeded in obtaining by a photographic process a representation of the whole of the chromosphere and prominences, while the same method gives also photographs of faculae (chapter VIII., § 153) on the visible surface of the sun.

The most important lines ordinarily present in the spectrum of the chromosphere are those of hydrogen, two lines (H and K) which have been identified with some difficulty as belonging to calcium, and a yellow line the substance producing which, known as helium, has only recently (1895) been discovered on the earth. But the chromosphere when disturbed and many of the prominences give spectra containing a number of other lines.