Hidden History: Lost Civilizations, Secret Knowledge, and Ancient Mysteries by Brian Haughton (beginner reading books for adults txt) 📕

© Government of Ireland

Entrance to Newgrange with huge entrance slab displaying megalithic art.

One major aspect of the Newgrange monument-which is often disputedis its primary function. Excavations inside the chambers revealed relatively few archaeological finds, probably because the majority had been removed in the centuries that the site remained open (from 1699 until it was examined by O'Kelly in 1962). Finds included two inhumation burials and at least three cremated bodies, all of which were found close to the huge stone basins, which seem to have been used for holding the bones of the dead. Taking into account the removal of much of the material and the fact that all of the human bones recovered were small fragments, thus making it

difficult to clearly identify individual burials, there must have been a lot more than five people originally buried in the chambers. Archaeological finds inside the monument have not been spectacular; though a few gold objects have been found, including two gold torcs (a piece of jewelry worn about the neck similar to a collar), a gold chain, and two rings. Other finds include a large phallus-like stone, a few pendants and beads, a bone chisel, and several bone pins. The lack of pottery finds at Newgrange is typical for passage grave cemeteries, which seem to have been places reserved for certain types of activity and an extremely limited number of people. However, not everyone agrees that Newgrange ever functioned as a tomb at all. In his 2004 book, Newgrange-Temple to Life, South African-born author Chris O'Callaghan argues against Newgrange being a Passage Grave. He maintains that there is no real evidence of intentional human burial at Newgrange, and believes that the bone fragments found during excavations were probably brought in there by animals long after Newgrange became disused. O'Callaghan's theory is that the monument was built to celebrate the union of the Sun God with Mother Earth, a symbol of the life force itself. The light box or sun window would have allowed the Sun God to penetrate the passage of the mound (signifying Mother Earth) and reach deep into the chamber (symbolizing the womb). This theory is borne out in part by the winter solstice alignment of the site, and perhaps by the phallic shaped pillar and chalk balls found in the chamber, which possibly represented male sexual organs. However, Newgrange does not need to be confined to one function. And, as pointed out above, the small amount of human bone discovered at the site does not seem to represent the total of Neolithic burials within the chambers, as significant amounts were probably taken out of the monument, perhaps by scavenging animals or people looking for relics. Newgrange has many connections with Irish myth, and was known as a sidhe or fairy mound even into the 20th century. A number of illustrious characters from Irish mythology are mentioned in association with it, including the Tuatha De Danann, the ancient mythical rulers of Ireland; Aengus Og, its traditional owner; and the hero Cuchulainn. Various mythical interpretations of Newgrange have been put forward. These include that it functioned as a house of the dead, the passage and chambers being kept dry for the comfort of the indwelling spirits, and the roof box being opened and closed to let the spirits in and out of the tomb. It was also thought to be the dwelling place of the great god Dagda, and at specific times during the year valuable offerings would be made to such gods. There is actually archaeological evidence for offerings at Newgrange long after it ceased to function as a tomb and observatory. Various Roman items, including gold coins, pendants, and brooches-some in mint condition-have been found at the monument. Considering the Romans never invaded Ireland, many of these offerings must have been made by Romans or Romano-British visitors from Britain, perhaps they were ancient pilgrims venerating an already 3,000- year-old religious monument.

© Government of Ireland

The monument, as seen from a distance.

In 1993, due to their vast cultural and historical importance, Newgrange and the nearby passage tombs of Knowth and Dowth were designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Newgrange now attracts in excess of 200,000 visitors per year, all of which come on guided tours from the Bru na Boinne Visitor Center, as there is no longer direct access to the site. Anyone wanting to visit around the 21st of December to witness the magnificent midwinter solstice may, however, be in for a long wait. In 2005 there were around 27,000 applications to enter the tomb at this time. Consequently, admission to the Newgrange tomb chamber for the winter solstice sunrise is only by lottery. It is necessary to fill out an application form, available at the reception desk in the Bru na Boinne Visitor Center, and in early October, 50 names are drawn, 10 for each morning the tomb is illuminated. Two places in the chamber are then given to each of the lucky people whose names are drawn. One can only wonder how the Neolithic peoples of the area chose their watchers of the midwinter solstice at this magnificent site.

Machu Picchu: Lost CiIy of the Incas

©John Griffiths.

Overall view of Machu Picchu in its stunning setting.

Probably the most spectacular archaeological site in South America and the most famous symbol of the Incas, Machu Picchu (Old Peak), is located in a semi-tropical area 7,000 feet above sea level in the Andes Mountains of Peru. It lies about 300 miles southeast of Lima, the modern Peruvian capital, and 170 miles northwest of Cuzco, the capital city of the Inca Empire. The vast Inca Empire lasted from A.D. 1438 to 1533, and was centered in

what is now Peru, but included Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, part of Argentina, and the southern end of Colombia. The Incas were the last of the advanced native societies of the Andes before the arrival of the Europeans.

Machu