The Power of Movement in Plants by Charles Darwin (best fiction books to read TXT) 📕

to effect this, it is almost necessary that the seed should be pressed down so as to offer some resistance, unless indeed the soil is extremely loose; for otherwise the seed is lifted up, instead of the radicle penetrating the surface. But seeds often get covered by earth thrown up by burrowing quadrupeds or scratching birds, by the castings of earth-worms, by heaps of excrement, the decaying branches of trees, etc., and will thus be pressed down; and they must often fall into cracks when the ground is dry, or into holes.

Even with seeds lying on the bare surface, the first developed root-hairs, by becoming attached to stones or other objects on the surface, are able to hold down the upper part of the radicle, whilst the tip penetrates the ground. Sachs has shown* how well and closely root-hairs adapt themselves by growth to the most irregular particles in the soil, and become firmly attached to them. This attachment seems to be effected by the softening or liquefaction of the outer surface of the wall of the hair and its subsequent consolidation, as will be on some future occasion more fully described. This intimate union plays an important part, according to Sachs, in the absorption of water and of the inorganic matter dissolved in it. The mechanical aid afforded by the root-hairs in penetrating the ground is probably only a secondary service.

 

The tip of the radicle, as soon as it protrudes from the seed-coats, begins to circumnutate, and the whole

 

* ‘Physiologie V�g�tale,’ 1868, pp. 199, 205.

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growing part continues to do so, probably for as long as growth continues.

This movement of the radicle has been described in Brassica, Aesculus, Phaseolus, Vicia, Cucurbita, Quercus and Zea. The probability of its occurrence was inferred by Sachs,* from radicles placed vertically upwards being acted on by geotropism (which we likewise found to be the case), for if they had remained absolutely perpendicular, the attraction of gravity could not have caused them to bend to any one side. Circumnutation was observed in the above specified cases, either by means of extremely fine filaments of glass affixed to the radicles in the manner previously described, or by their being allowed to grow downwards over inclined smoked glass-plates, on which they left their tracks. In the latter cases the serpentine course (see Figs. 19, 21, 27, 41) showed unequivocally that the apex had continually moved from side to side. This lateral movement was small in extent, being in the case of Phaseolus at most about 1 mm. from a medial line to both sides. But there was also movement in a vertical plane at right angles to the inclined glass-plates. This was shown by the tracks often being alternately a little broader and narrower, due to the radicles having alternately pressed with greater and less force on the plates.

Occasionally little bridges of soot were left across the tracks, showing that the apex had at these spots been lifted up. This latter fact was especially apt to occur

* ‘Ueber das Wachsthum der Wurzeln: Arbeiten des bot. Instituts in W�rzburg,’ Heft iii. 1873, p. 460. This memoir, besides its intrinsic and great interest, deserves to be studied as a model of careful investigation, and we shall have occasion to refer to it repeatedly. Dr. Frank had previously remarked (‘Beitr�ge zur Pflanzenphysiologie, 1868, p. 81) on the fact of radicles placed vertically upwards being acted on by geotropism, and he explained it by the supposition that their growth was not equal on all sides.

 

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when the radicle instead of travelling straight down the glass made a semicircular bend; but Fig. 52 shows that this may occur when the track is rectilinear. The apex by thus rising, was in one instance able to surmount a bristle cemented across an inclined glass-plate; but slips of wood only 1/40 of an inch in thickness always caused the radicles to bend rectangularly to one side, so that the apex did not rise to this small height in opposition to geotropism.

 

In those cases in which radicles with attached filaments were placed so as to stand up almost vertically, they curved downwards through the action of geotropism, circumnutating at the same time, and their courses were consequently zigzag. Sometimes, however, they made great circular sweeps, the lines being likewise zigzag.

 

Radicles closely surrounded by earth, even when this is thoroughly soaked and softened, may perhaps be quite prevented from circumnutating. Yet we should remember that the circumnutating sheath-like cotyledons of Phalaris, the hypocotyls of Solanum, and the epicotyls of Asparagus formed round themselves little circular cracks or furrows in a superficial layer of damp argillaceous sand. They were also able, as well as the hypocotyls of Brassica, to form straight furrows in damp sand, whilst circumnutating and bending towards a lateral light. In a future chapter it will be shown that the rocking or circumnutating movement of the flower-heads of Trifolium subterraneum aids them in burying themselves. It is therefore probable that the circumnutation of the tip of the radicle aids it slightly in penetrating the ground; and it may be observed in several of the previously given diagrams, that the movement is more strongly pronounced in radicles when they first

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protrude from the seed than at a rather later period; but whether this is an accidental or an adaptive coincidence we do not pretend to decide.

Nevertheless, when young radicles of Phaseolus multiflorus were fixed vertically close over damp sand, in the expectation that as soon as they reached it they would form circular furrows, this did not occur,—a fact which may be accounted for, as we believe, by the furrow being filled up as soon as formed by the rapid increase of thickness in the apex of the radicle. Whether or not a radicle, when surrounded by softened earth, is aided in forming a passage for itself by circumnutating, this movement can hardly fail to be of high importance, by guiding the radicle along a line of least resistance, as will be seen in the next chapter when we treat of the sensibility of the tip to contact. If, however, a radicle in its downward growth breaks obliquely into any crevice, or a hole left by a decayed root, or one made by the larva of an insect, and more especially by worms, the circumnutating movement of the tip will materially aid it in following such open passage; and we have observed that roots commonly run down the old burrows of worms.*

 

When a radicle is placed in a horizontal or inclined position, the terminal growing part, as is well known, bends down towards the centre of the earth; and Sachs* has shown that whilst thus bending, the growth of the lower surface is greatly retarded, whilst that * See, also, Prof. Hensen’s statements (‘Zeitschrift f�r Wissen, Zool.,’ B.

xxviii. p. 354, 1877) to the same effect. He goes so far as to believe that roots are able to penetrate the ground to a great depth only by means of the burrows made by worms.

 

* ‘Arbeiten des bot. Inst. W�rzburg,’ vol. i. 1873, p. 461. See also p. 397

for the length of the growing part, and p. 451 on the force of geotropism.

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of the upper surface continues at the normal rate, or may be even somewhat increased. He has further shown by attaching a thread, running over a pulley, to a horizontal radicle of large size, namely that of the common bean, that it was able to pull up a weight of only one gramme, or 15.4

grains. We may therefore conclude that geotropism does not give a radicle force sufficient to penetrate the ground, but merely tells it (if such an expression may be used) which course to pursue. Before we knew of Sachs’

more precise observations we covered a flat surface of damp sand with the thinnest tin-foil which we could procure (.02 to .03 mm., or .00012 to .00079 of an inch in thickness), and placed a radicle close above, in such a position that it grew almost perpendicularly downwards. When the apex came into contact with the polished level surface it turned at right angles and glided over it without leaving any impression; yet the tin-foil was so flexible, that a little stick of soft wood, pointed to the same degree as the end of the radicle and gently loaded with a weight of only a quarter of an ounce (120 grains) plainly indented the tin-foil.

 

Radicles are able to penetrate the ground by the force due to their longitudinal and transverse growth; the seeds themselves being held down by the weight of the superincumbent soil. In the case of the bean the apex, protected by the root-cap, is sharp, and the growing part, from 8 to 10 mm.

in length, is much more rigid, as Sachs has proved, than the part immediately above, which has ceased to increase in length. We endeavoured to ascertain the downward pressure of the growing part, by placing germinating beans between two small metal plates, the upper one of which was loaded with a known weight; and the

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radicle was then allowed to grow into a narrow hole in wood, 2 or 3 tenths of an inch in depth, and closed at the bottom. The wood was so cut that the short space of radicle between the mouth of the hole and the bean could not bend laterally on three sides; but it was impossible to protect the fourth side, close to the bean. Consequently, as long as the radicle continued to increase in length and remained straight, the weighted bean would be lifted up after the tip had reached the bottom of the shallow hole. Beans thus arranged, surrounded by damp sand, lifted up a quarter of a pound in 24 h.

after the tip of the radicle had entered the hole. With a greater weight the radicles themselves always became bent on the one unguarded side; but this probably would not have occurred if they had been closely surrounded on all sides by compact earth. There was, however, a possible, but not probable, source of error in these trials, for it was not ascertained whether the beans themselves go on swelling for several days after they have germinated, and after having been treated in the manner in which ours had been; namely, being first left for 24 h. in water, then allowed to germinate in very damp air, afterwards placed over the hole and almost surrounded by damp sand in a closed box.

 

Fig. 55. Outline of piece of stick (reduced to one-half natural size) with a hole through which the radicle of a bean grew. Thickness of stick at narrow end .08 inch, at broad end .16; depth of hole .1 inch.

We succeeded better in ascertaining the force exerted transversely by these radicles. Two were so placed as to penetrate small holes made in little sticks, one of which was cut into the shape here exactly copied (Fig. 55).

The short end of the stick beyond the hole was purposely split, but not the opposite

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end. As the wood was highly elastic, the split or fissure closed immediately after being made. After six days the stick and bean were dug out of the damp sand, and the radicle was found to be much enlarged above and beneath the hole. The fissure which was at first quite closed, was now open to a width of 4 mm.; as soon as the radicle was extracted, it immediately closed to a width of 2 mm. The stick was then suspended horizontally by a fine wire passing through the hole lately filled by the radicle, and a little saucer was suspended beneath to receive the weights; and it required 8 lbs. 8 ozs. to open the fissure to the width