The Evolution of Man, vol 2 by Ernst Haeckel (fun books to read for adults TXT) 📕

breathe air through lungs. The same applies to the most advanced of the Amphibia, the Batrachia (frogs and toads); some of them have entirely lost the gill-bearing larva form. ( The tree-frog of Martinique (Hylades martinicensis) loses the gills on the seventh, and the tail and yelk-sac on the eighth, day of foetal life. On the ninth or tenth day after fecundation the frog emerges from the egg.) This is also the case with certain small, serpentine Amphibia, the Caecilia (which live in the ground like earth-worms).

(FIGURE 2.261. Larva of the Spotted Salamander (Salamandra maculata), seen from the ventral side. In the centre a yelk-sac still hangs from the gut. The external gills are gracefully ramified. The two pairs of legs are still very small.)

The great interest of the natural history of the Amphibia consists especially in their intermediate position between the lower and higher Vertebrates. The lower Amphibia approach very closely to the Dipneusta in their whole organisation, live mainly in the water, and breathe by gills; but the higher Amphibia are just as close to the Amniotes, live mainly on land, and breathe by lungs. But in their younger state the latter resemble the former, and only reach the higher stage by a complete metamorphosis. The embryonic development of most of the higher Amphibia still faithfully reproduces the stem-history of the whole class, and the various stages of the advance that was made by the lower Vertebrates in passing from aquatic to terrestrial life during the Devonian or the Carboniferous period are repeated in the spring by every frog that develops from an egg in our ponds.

(FIGURE 2.262. Larva of the common grass-frog (Rana temporaria), or “tadpole.” m mouth, n a pair of suckers for fastening on to stones, d skin-fold from which the gill-cover develops; behind it the gill-clefts, from which the branching gills (k) protrude, s tail-muscles, f cutaneous fin-fringe of the tail.)

The common frog leaves the egg in the shape of a larva, like the tailed salamander (Figure 2.261), and this is altogether different from the mature frog (Figure 2.262). The short trunk ends in a long tail, with the form and structure of a fish’s tail (s). There are no limbs at first. The respiration is exclusively branchial, first through external (k) and then internal gills. In harmony with this the heart has the same structure as in the fish, and consists of two sections—an atrium that receives the venous blood from the body, and a ventricle that forces it through the arteries into the gills.

We find the larvae of the frog (or tadpoles, Gyrini) in great numbers in our ponds every spring in this fish-form, using their muscular tails in swimming, just like the fishes and young Ascidia. When they have reached a certain size, the remarkable metamorphosis from the fish-form to the frog begins. A blind sac grows out of the gullet, and expands into a couple of spacious sacs: these are the lungs. The simple chamber of the heart is divided into two sections by the development of a partition, and there are at the same time considerable changes in the structure of the chief arteries. Previously all the blood went from the auricle through the aortic arches into the gills, but now only part of it goes to the gills, the other part passing to the lungs through the new-formed pulmonary artery. From this point arterial blood returns to the left auricle of the heart, while the venous blood gathers in the right auricle. As both auricles open into a single ventricle, this contains mixed blood. The dipneust form has now succeeded to the fish-form. In the further course of the metamorphosis the gills and the branchial vessels entirely disappear, and the respiration becomes exclusively pulmonary. Later, the long swimming tail is lost, and the frog now hops to the land with the legs that have grown meantime.

This remarkable metamorphosis of the Amphibia is very instructive in connection with our human genealogy, and is particularly interesting from the fact that the various groups of actual Amphibia have remained at different stages of their stem-history, in harmony with the biogenetic law. We have first of all a very low order of Amphibia—the Sozobranchia (“gilled-amphibia”), which retain their gills throughout life, like the fishes. In a second order of the salamanders the gills are lost in the metamorphosis, and when fully grown they have only pulmonary respiration. Some of the tailed Amphibia still retain the gill-clefts in the side of the neck, though they have lost the gills themselves (Menopoma). If we force the larvae of our salamanders (Figure 2.261) and tritons to remain in the water, and prevent them from reaching the land, we can in favourable circumstances make them retain their gills. In this fish-like condition they reach sexual maturity, and remain throughout life at the lower stage of the gilled Amphibia.

(FIGURE 2.263. Fossil mailed amphibian, from the Bohemian Carboniferous (Seeleya). (From Fritsch.) The scaly coat is retained on the left.)

We have the reverse of this experiment in a Mexican gilled salamander, the fish-like axolotl (Siredon pisciformis). It was formerly regarded as a permanent gilled amphibian persisting throughout life at the fish-stage. But some of the hundreds of these animals that are kept in the Botanical Garden at Paris got on to the land for some reason or other, lost their gills, and changed into a form closely resembling the salamander (Amblystoma). Other species of the genus became sexually mature for the first time in this condition. This has been regarded as an astounding phenomenon, although every common frog and salamander repeats the metamorphosis in the spring. The whole change from the aquatic and gill-breathing animal to the terrestrial lung-breathing form may be followed step by step in this case. But what we see here in the development of the individual has happened to the whole class in the course of its stem-history.

The metamorphosis goes farther in a third order of Amphibia, the Batrachia or Anura, than in the salamander. To this belong the various kinds of toads, ringed snakes, water-frogs, tree-frogs, etc. These lose, not only the gills, but also (sooner or later) the tail, during metamorphosis.

The ontogenetic loss of the gills and the tail in the frog and toad can only be explained on the assumption that they are descended from long-tailed Amphibia of the salamander type. This is also clear from the comparative anatomy of the two groups. This remarkable metamorphosis is, however, also interesting because it throws a certain light on the phylogeny of the tailless apes and man. Their ancestors also had long tails and gills like the gilled Amphibia, as the tail and the gill-arches of the human embryo clearly show.

For comparative anatomical and ontogenetic reasons, we must not seek these amphibian ancestors of ours—as one would be inclined to do, perhaps—among the tailless Batrachia, but among the tailed lower Amphibia.

The vertebrate form that comes next to the Amphibia in the series of our ancestors is a lizard-like animal, the earlier existence of which can be confidently deduced from the facts of comparative anatomy and ontogeny. The living Hatteria of New Zealand (Figure 2.264) and the extinct Rhyncocephala of the Permian period (Figure 2.265) are closely related to this important stem-form; we may call them the Protamniotes, or Primitive Amniotes. All the Vertebrates above the Amphibia—or the three classes of reptiles, birds, and mammals—differ so much in their whole organisation from all the lower Vertebrates we have yet considered, and have so great a resemblance to each other, that we put them all together in a single group with the title of Amniotes. In these three classes alone we find the remarkable embryonic membrane, already mentioned, which we called the amnion; a cenogenetic adaptation that we may regard as a result of the sinking of the growing embryo into the yelk-sac.

All the Amniotes known to us—all reptiles, birds, and mammals (including man)—agree in so many important points of internal structure and development that their descent from a common ancestor can be affirmed with tolerable certainty. If the evidence of comparative anatomy and ontogeny is ever entirely beyond suspicion, it is certainly the case here. All the peculiarities that accompany and follow the formation of the amnion, and that we have learned in our consideration of human embryology; all the peculiarities in the development of the organs which we will presently follow in detail; finally, all the principal special features of the internal structure of the full-grown Amniotes—prove so clearly the common origin of all the Amniotes from single extinct stem-form that it is difficult to entertain the idea of their evolution from several independent stems. This unknown common stem-form is our primitive Amniote (Protamnion). In outward appearance it was probably something between the salamander and the lizard.

It is very probable that some part of the Permian period was the age of the origin of the Protamniotes. This follows from the fact that the Amphibia are not fully developed until the Carboniferous period, and that the first fossil reptiles (Palaehatteria, Homoeosaurus, Proterosaurus) are found towards the close of the Permian period. Among the important changes of the vertebrate organisation that marked the rise of the first Amniotes from salamandrine Amphibia during this period the following three are especially noteworthy: the entire disappearance of the water-breathing gills and the conversion of the gill-arches into other organs, the formation of the allantois or primitive urinary sac, and the development of the amnion.

One of the most salient characteristics of the Amniotes is the complete loss of the gills. All Amniotes, even if living in water (such as sea-serpents and whales), breathe air through lungs, never water through gills. All the Amphibia (with very rare exceptions) retain their gills for some time when young, and have for a time (if not permanently) branchial respiration; but after these there is no question of branchial respiration. The Protamniote itself must have entirely abandoned water-breathing. Nevertheless, the gill-arches are preserved by heredity, and develop into totally different (in part rudimentary) organs—various parts of the bone of the tongue, the frame of the jaws, the organ of hearing, etc. But we do not find in the embryos of the Amniotes any trace of gill-leaves, or of real respiratory organs on the gill-arches.

With this complete abandonment of the gills is probably connected the formation of another organ, to which we have already referred in embryology—namely, the allantois or primitive urinary sac (cf. Chapter 1.15). It is very probable that the urinary bladder of the Dipneusts is the first structure of the allantois. We find in these a urinary bladder that proceeds from the lower wall of the hind end of the gut, and serves as receptacle for the renal secretions. This organ has been transmitted to the Amphibia, as we can see in the frog.

The formation of the amnion and the allantois and the complete disappearance of the gills are the chief characteristics that distinguish the Amniotes from the lower Vertebrates we have hitherto considered. To these we may add several subordinate features that are transmitted to all the Amniotes, and are found in these only. One striking embryonic character of the Amniotes is the great curve of the head and neck in the embryo. We also find an advance in the structure of several of the internal organs of the Amniotes which raises them above the highest of the anamnia. In particular, a partition is formed in the simple ventricle of the heart, dividing into right and left chambers. In connection with the complete metamorphosis of the gill-arches we find a further development of the auscultory organs. Also, there is a great advance in the structure of the brain, skeleton, muscular system, and other parts. Finally, one of the most important changes is the reconstruction of the kidneys. In all the earlier Vertebrates we have found the primitive kidneys as excretory organs, and