The Evolution of Man, vol 2 by Ernst Haeckel (fun books to read for adults TXT) 📕

CHAPTER 2.23. OUR APE ANCESTORS.

The long series of animal forms which we must regard as the ancestors of our race has been confined within narrower and narrower circles as our phylogenetic inquiry has progressed. The great majority of known animals do not fall in the line of our ancestry, and even within the vertebrate stem only a small number are found to do so. In the most advanced class of the stem, the mammals, there are only a few families that belong directly to our genealogical tree. The most important of these are the apes and their predecessors, the half-apes, and the earliest Placentals (Prochoriata).

The Placentals (also called Choriata, Monodelphia, Eutheria or Epitheria) are distinguished from the lower mammals we have just considered, the Monotremes and Marsupials, by a number of striking peculiarities. Man has all these distinctive features; that is a very significant fact. We may, on the ground of the most careful comparative-anatomical and ontogenetic research, formulate the thesis: “Man is in every respect a true Placental.” He has all the characteristics of structure and development that distinguish the Placentals from the two lower divisions of the mammals, and, in fact, from all other animals. Among these characteristics we must especially notice the more advanced development of the brain. The fore-brain or cerebrum especially is much more developed in them than in the lower animals. The corpus callosum, which forms a sort of wide bridge connecting the two hemispheres of the cerebrum, is only fully formed in the Placentals; it is very rudimentary in the Marsupials and Monotremes. It is true that the lowest Placentals are not far removed from the Marsupials in cerebral development; but within the placental group we can trace an unbroken gradation of progressive development of the brain, rising gradually from this lowest stage up to the elaborate psychic organ of the apes and man. The human soul—a physiological function of the brain—is in reality only a more advanced ape-soul.

The mammary glands of the Placentals are provided with teats like those of the Marsupials; but we never find in the Placentals the pouch in which the latter carry and suckle their young. Nor have they the marsupial bones in the ventral wall at the anterior border of the pelvis, which the Marsupials have in common with the Monotremes, and which are formed by a partial ossification of the sinews of the inner oblique abdominal muscle. There are merely a few insignificant remnants of them in some of the Carnivora. The Placentals are also generally without the hook-shaped process at the angle of the lower jaw which is found in the Marsupials.

(FIGURE 2.273. Foetal membranes of the human embryo (diagrammatic). m the thick muscular wall of the womb. plu placenta [the inner layer (plu apostrophe) of which penetrates into the chorion-villi (chz) with its processes]. chf tufted, chl smooth chorion. a amnion, ah amniotic cavity, as amniotic sheath of the umbilical cord (which passes under into the navel of the embryo—not given here), dg vitelline duct, ds yelk sac, dv, dr decidua (vera and reflexa). The uterine cavity (uh) opens below into the vagina and above on the right into an oviduct (t). (From Kolliker.))

However, the feature that characterises the Placentals above all others, and that has given its name to the whole sub-class, is the formation of the placenta. We have already considered the formation and significance of this remarkable embryonic organ when we traced the development of the chorion and the allantois in the human embryo (Chapter 1.15). The urinary sac or the allantois, the curious vesicle that grows out of the hind part of the gut, has essentially the same structure and function in the human embryo as in that of all the other Amniotes (cf. Figures 1.194 to 1.196). There is a quite secondary difference, on which great stress has wrongly been laid, in the fact that in man and the higher apes the original cavity of the allantois quickly degenerates, and the rudiment of it sticks out as a solid projection from the primitive gut. The thin wall of the allantois consists of the same two layers or membranes as the wall of the gut—the gut-gland layer within and the gut-fibre layer without. In the gut-fibre layer of the allantois there are large blood-vessels, which serve for the nutrition, and especially the respiration, of the embryo—the umbilical vessels (Chapter 1.15). In the reptiles and birds the allantois enlarges into a spacious sac, which encloses the embryo with the amnion, and does not combine with the outer foetal membrane (the chorion). This is the case also with the lowest mammals, the oviparous Monotremes and most of the Marsupials. It is only in some of the later Marsupials (Peramelida) and all the Placentals that the allantois develops into the distinctive and remarkable structure that we call the placenta.

The placenta is formed by the branches of the blood-vessels in the wall of the allantois growing into the hollow ectodermic tufts (villi) of the chorion, which run into corresponding depressions in the mucous membrane of the womb. The latter also is richly permeated with blood-vessels which bring the mother’s blood to the embryo. As the partition in the villi between the maternal blood-vessels and those of the foetus is extremely thin, there is a direct exchange of fluid between the two, and this is of the greatest importance in the nutrition of the young mammal. It is true that the maternal vessels do not entirely pass into the foetal vessels, so that the two kinds of blood are simply mixed. But the partition between them is so thin that the nutritive fluid easily transudes through it. By means of this transudation or diosmosis the exchange of fluids takes place without difficulty. The larger the embryo is in the placentals, and the longer it remains in the womb, the more necessary it is to have special structures to meet its great consumption of food.

In this respect there is a very conspicuous difference between the lower and higher mammals. In the Marsupials, in which the embryo is only a comparatively short time in the womb and is born in a very immature condition, the vascular arrangements in the yelk-sac and the allantois suffice for its nutrition, as we find them in the Monotremes, birds, and reptiles. But in the Placentals, where gestation lasts a long time, and the embryo reaches its full development under the protection of its enveloping membranes, there has to be a new mechanism for the direct supply of a large quantity of food, and this is admirably met by the formation of the placenta.

Branches of the blood-vessels penetrate into the chorion-villi from within, starting from the gut-fibre layer of the allantois, and bringing the blood of the foetus through the umbilical vessels (Figure 2.273 chz). On the other hand, a thick network of blood-vessels develops in the mucous membrane that clothes the inner surface of the womb, especially in the region of the depressions into which the chorion-villi penetrate (plu). This network of arteries contains maternal blood, brought by the uterine vessels. As the connective tissue between the enlarged capillaries of the uterus disappears, wide cavities filled with maternal blood appear, and into these the chorion-villi of the embryo penetrate. The sum of these vessels of both kinds, that are so intimately correlated at this point, together with the connective and enveloping tissue, is the placenta. The placenta consists, therefore, properly speaking, of two different though intimately connected parts—the foetal placenta (Figure 2.273 chz) within and the maternal or uterine placenta (plu) without. The latter is made up of the mucous coat of the uterus and its blood-vessels, the former of the tufted chorion and the umbilical vessels of the embryo (cf. Figure 1.196).

(FIGURE 2.274. Skull of a fossil lemur (Adapis parisiensis,), from the Miocene at Quercy. A lateral view from the right, half natural size. B lower jaw, C lower molar, i incisors, c canines, p premolars, m molars.)

The manner in which these two kinds of vessels combine in the placenta, and the structure, form, and size of it, differ a good deal in the various Placentals; to some extent they give us valuable data for the natural classification, and therefore the phylogeny, of the whole of this sub-class. On the ground of these differences we divide it into two principal sections; the lower Placentals or Indecidua, and the higher Placentals or Deciduata.

To the Indecidua belong three important groups of mammals: the Lemurs (Prosimiae), the Ungulates (tapirs, horses, pigs, ruminants, etc.), and the Cetacea (dolphins and whales). In these Indecidua the villi are distributed over the whole surface of the chorion (or its greater part) either singly or in groups. They are only loosely connected with the mucous coat of the uterus, so that the whole foetal membrane with its villi can be easily withdrawn from the uterine depressions like a hand from a glove. There is no real coalescence of the two placentas at any part of the surface of contact. Hence at birth the foetal placenta alone comes away; the uterine placenta is not torn away with it.

The formation of the placenta is very different in the second and higher section of the Placentals, the Deciduata. Here again the whole surface of the chorion is thickly covered with the villi in the beginning. But they afterwards disappear from one part of the surface, and grow proportionately thicker on the other part. We thus get a differentiation between the smooth chorion (chorion laeve, Figure 2.273 chl) and the thickly-tufted chorion (chorion frondosum, Figure 2.273 chf). The former has only a few small villi or none at all; the latter is thickly covered with large and well-developed villi; this alone now constitutes the placenta. In the great majority of the Deciduata the placenta has the same shape as in man (Figures 1.197 and 1.200)—namely a thick, circular disk like a cake; so we find in the Insectivora, Chiroptera, Rodents, and Apes. This discoplacenta lies on one side of the chorion. But in the Sarcotheria (both the Carnivora and the seals, Pinnipedia) and in the elephant and several other Deciduates we find a zonoplacenta; in these the rich mass of villi runs like a girdle round the middle of the ellipsoid chorion, the two poles of it being free from them.

(FIGURE 2.275. The Slender Lori (Stenops gracilis) of Ceylon, a tailless lemur.)

Still more characteristic of the Deciduates is the peculiar and very intimate connection between the chorion frondosum and the corresponding part of the mucous coat of the womb, which we must regard as a real coalescence of the two. The villi of the chorion push their branches into the blood-filled tissues of the coat of the uterus, and the vessels of each loop together so intimately that it is no longer possible to separate the foetal from the maternal placenta; they form henceforth a compact and apparently simple placenta. In consequence of this coalescence, a whole piece of the lining of the womb comes away at birth with the foetal membrane that is interlaced with it. This piece is called the “falling-away” membrane (decidua). It is also called the serous (spongy) membrane, because it is pierced like a sieve or sponge. All the higher Placentals that have this decidua are classed together as the “Deciduates.” The tearing away of the decidua at birth naturally causes the mother to lose a quantity of blood, which does not happen in the Indecidua. The last part of the uterine coat has to be repaired by a new growth after birth in the Deciduates. (Cf. Figures 1.199 and 1.200.)

In the various orders of the Deciduates, the placenta differs considerably both in outer form and internal structure. The extensive investigations of the last ten years have shown that there is more variation in these respects among the higher mammals than was formerly supposed. The physiological work of this important