General Science by Bertha May Clark (best historical fiction books of all time TXT) π
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boiling water, and after cooling for a few minutes, it is placed in a vessel containing finely chopped ice (Fig. 10). The mercury column falls rapidly, but finally remains stationary, and at this level another scratch is made on the tube and the point is marked 32Β°. The space between these two points, which represent the temperatures of boiling water and of melting ice, is divided into 180 equal parts called degrees. The thermometer in use in the United States is marked in this way and is called the Fahrenheit thermometer after its designer. Before the degrees are etched on the thermometer the open end of the tube is sealed.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Determining one of the fixed points of a thermometer.]
The Centigrade thermometer, in use in foreign countries and in all scientific work, is similar to the Fahrenheit except that the fixed points are marked 100Β° and 0Β°, and the interval between the points is divided into 100 equal parts instead of into 180.
The boiling point of
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Fireplaces, 17, 18.
Fixing, in photography, 128.
Flame, hydrogen, 80.
Flood, Johnstown, 214, 215.
relation to forests, 217.
Flour, self-raising, 231.
Flume, 177.
Flute, 297.
Focal length, 118.
Focus, of lens, 118.
Fog, 37.
Food, 60-69.
carbohydrates, 64, 65.
economy in buying, 66-69.
fats, 65.
fuel value of, 60-62.
need of, 63, 64.
preservatives, 252.
proteids, 66.
value, 67.
waste, 60.
water in, 75.
Foot pound, 172.
Force and motion, 156, 157.
and work, 156, 157.
magnetic lines of, 329-331, 334.
muscular, 155, 160.
Force pumps, 192, 193.
Forests and water supply, 216-217.
Forging of iron, 40, 41.
Formaldehyde, 253.
Freezing, effect of salt, 44.
effect on ground and rocks, 42.
expansion of water on, 41.
ice cream freezer, 44.
Frequency in music, 273, 275.
Fresh air, 22-24, 49.
amount consumed by gas burner, 22.
and health, 49, 50.
in underground work, 202.
in work under water, 203-205.
Friction, 173, 174.
losses by, 174, 210.
source of heat and fire, 47.
Frost, 36, 37.
Fruit, canned, bleached with sulphurous acid, 242.
colored with coal tar dyes, 253.
Fuel value of foods, 60-62.
table of fuel values, 67.
Fulcrum, 159, 160.
Fumigation, 251.
Fundamental tone, 290, 291, 292.
Furnace, hot air, 19.
Fuse, 340.
Fusion, heat of, 40.
Fireplaces, 17, 18.
Fixing, in photography, 128.
Flame, hydrogen, 80.
Flood, Johnstown, 214, 215.
relation to forests, 217.
Flour, self-raising, 231.
Flume, 177.
Flute, 297.
Focal length, 118.
Focus, of lens, 118.
Fog, 37.
Food, 60-69.
carbohydrates, 64, 65.
economy in buying, 66-69.
fats, 65.
fuel value of, 60-62.
need of, 63, 64.
preservatives, 252.
proteids, 66.
value, 67.
waste, 60.
water in, 75.
Foot pound, 172.
Force and motion, 156, 157.
and work, 156, 157.
magnetic lines of, 329-331, 334.
muscular, 155, 160.
Force pumps, 192, 193.
Forests and water supply, 216-217.
Forging of iron, 40, 41.
Formaldehyde, 253.
Freezing, effect of salt, 44.
effect on ground and rocks, 42.
expansion of water on, 41.
ice cream freezer, 44.
Frequency in music, 273, 275.
Fresh air, 22-24, 49.
amount consumed by gas burner, 22.
and health, 49, 50.
in underground work, 202.
in work under water, 203-205.
Friction, 173, 174.
losses by, 174, 210.
source of heat and fire, 47.
Frost, 36, 37.
Fruit, canned, bleached with sulphurous acid, 242.
colored with coal tar dyes, 253.
Fuel value of foods, 60-62.
table of fuel values, 67.
Fulcrum, 159, 160.
Fumigation, 251.
Fundamental tone, 290, 291, 292.
Furnace, hot air, 19.
Fuse, 340.
Fusion, heat of, 40.
Galvanometer, 341.
Gas, acetylene, 152, 153.
and unburned carbon, 151.
coal, 151, 152.
effect of heat on volume, 96, 97.
effect of pressure on volume, 95-96.
engine, 185-186.
for cooking, 151, 152.
illuminating, 92, 93, 150, 151.
liquefaction, 97, 98.
meter, 93, 94.
natural, 152.
Gasolene, 149, 150.
as cleaning agent, 227, 243.
in gas engine, 185, 186.
Gauge, pressure, 92-94.
Gelatin, plate and film, 129.
Glass, kinds of, 119.
molding of, 40.
non-conductor, 321.
Grape juice, fermented with millet, 233.
Gravity cell, 309, 310.
Grease, and lye, 221.
and soap making, 223.
Gulf Stream, 24.
Hard water, and soap, 225.
Harp, 295.
Headache, 124, 125.
powders, 259.
Health, effect of diet, 62, 64.
Heat, 9.
absorbed in boiling, 31-32.
and disease germs, 250.
and food, 252.
and friction, 47.
and light, 142, 147.
and oxidation, 45, 48, 49.
and wave motion, 145-147.
conduction, 25.
convection, 24, 25.
from burning hydrogen, 80.
from electricity, 312-315, 339.
needed to melt substances, 39.
of fusion, 40.
of vaporization, 32.
produced by compression, 96.
relation of water to weather, 29, 40.
set free by freezing water, 40.
sources of, 29-30.
specific, 28-29.
temperature, 27.
unit of, 27, 28.
Heating effect of electric current, 312-315.
Heating of buildings: central heating plant, 19.
fireplaces, 17-18.
Heating, furnaces, 19.
hot water, 19-22.
Helix, 318.
Horse power, 173, 351.
Hot water heating, 19-22.
Hues, primary, 135.
Humidity, 38.
proper percentage for health and comfort, 38, 39.
Humus, 216, 217.
Hydrocarbons, 149.
Hydrochloric acid, composition, 227.
in bleaching, 241.
to make a salt, 227.
to make carbon dioxide, 55.
to make chlorine, 238.
to make hydrogen, 80.
Hydrogen, 65, 66.
and chlorine, 239.
and water, 79.
chemical conduct, 126-127.
flame, 80.
in voltaic cell, 307.
peroxide, 53, 252.
preparation, 80.
to liquefy, 97.
Ice, lighter than water, 42.
manufacture of, 98, 99.
Ice cream freezers, 44.
Illuminating gas, manufacture of, 150, 151.
measurement of quantity consumed, 93, 94.
test of pressure, 92, 93.
Illumination, intensity of, 105, 106.
Image, in mirror, 108, 111.
Incandescent lighting, 107, 314.
Incidence, angle of, 110.
Inclined plane, 162-166.
screw, 166.
wedge, 166.
Indigo, 218.
Induced current, 346-347.
Ink spots, removal of, 243.
Insoluble substances, 71.
Insulators, electric, 324.
Intensity, of light, 105-107.
of sound, 270-271.
Interval, in musical scale, 283.
Iron, forging, 41.
filings, 329.
galvanizing, 49.
oxidation of, 48.
Irrigation, 193-194.
Isobaric lines, 88, 91.
Isothermal lines, 89, 91.
Johnstown flood, 214, 215.
Kerosene, 149, 150.
Kilowatt, 351.
Lactic acid, 230.
Leaves, 132, 262.
Lens, 117-121.
concave, 118.
converging, 118.
crystalline, of eye, 122.
focal length, 118.
material, 119.
refractive power, 119.
Lever, 158-162.
examples, 160-162.
fulcrum, 159, 160.
Life, and carbon dioxide, 54.
and nitrogen, 261.
and oxygen, 49, 54.
Lifting pumps, 189-192.
Light, absorption, 135-138.
and heat, 142-147.
a wave motion, 145-147.
bent rays, 113, 114.
chemical action, 126-127.
disease, 131-132.
essential to life, 131, 132.
fading illumination, 105, 106.
influence on color, 134.
reflection of, 109-112.
refraction of, 113-125.
travels in a straight line, 108.
white, composed of colors, 134.
Lighting, artificial, 148-153.
Lime, chloride of, 240, 251.
Limewater, 220.
and carbon dioxide, 228.
Linen, bleaching, 241.
dyeing, 245-247.
Lines, of force, 329-331, 334.
isobaric, 88, 91.
isothermal, 89, 91.
Liquefaction of gases, 97, 98.
Liquid air, 98.
Liquid soap, 223, 224.
Litmus, action of acids, 220.
action of bases, 221, 222.
action of neutral substance, 222.
Logwood dyes, 245, 247, 248.
Los Angeles aqueduct, 211.
Lye, 221, 222.
Machines, compound, 171.
inclined plane, 162-166.
lever, 158-162.
pulley, 166-169.
wheel and axle, 169-171.
Madder, for dyes, 245.
Magnet, 328.
electro-, 319.
field of, 329-331.
lines of force about, 329-331.
poles of, 330-332.
properties of electricity, 318.
Magnetic, needle, 328.
poles, 329-331.
Magnifying power, of a lens, 115.
of a microscope, 115.
of a telescope, 115.
Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, 71.
Manganese dioxide, 46.
chlorine made from, 238.
oxygen made from, 46.
Marble, for carbon dioxide, 55.
Matches, 47.
safety, 47-48.
Matching colors, 137.
Matter, conservation of, 58, 59.
Meat, 66.
preservation of, 253.
Mechanical devices, 154, 155.
Melting, 39, 40.
Melting point, 40.
Melting substances without a definite melting point, 40.
Mercerized cotton, 218.
Mercury, barometer, 84.
thermometer, 14-17.
Metals, electroplating, 317.
preservation by paint, 253-254.
veins deposited by precipitation, 72, 73.
welding, 315.
Meter, gas, 93, 94.
MicroΓΆrganisms, 132, 133.
Microscope, 115.
Milk, boiling point, 32.
Pasteurized, 250.
Minerals, in foods, 62, 63.
in water, 70, 71.
Mirrors, 108-112.
distance of image behind mirror, 111.
distance of object in front of mirror, 111.
image a duplicate of object. 111.
Molding of glass, 40.
Molecule, 100-103.
Mordants, 247, 248, 249.
Morphine, 257.
Morse, telegraphic code, 324.
Motion, in sound, 266, 278, 280.
in work, 156.
Motor, electric, 336.
principle of, 333.
street car, 337.
Mouth breathing, 50.
cause of, 51.
Movable pulley, 167, 168.
Music, 278.
Musical instruments, percussion, 299.
stringed, 284-295.
wind, 295, 299.
Musical scale, 282.
Naphtha in gas engines, 185.
Naphthalene, 152.
Narcotics, 255.
Natural gas, 152.
Needle, magnetic, 328.
Negative, electrode, 308.
photographic, 130.
Neutral substance, 222.
and litmus, 222.
Neutralization, 222.
Niagara Falls, 176.
Nitrogen, 66.
and bacteria, 263.
and plant life, 261.
in atmosphere, 261.
in fertilizer, 262-265.
in food, 66.
preparation of, 261.
properties of, 261.
Noise in music, 280.
Non-conductors,
Gas, acetylene, 152, 153.
and unburned carbon, 151.
coal, 151, 152.
effect of heat on volume, 96, 97.
effect of pressure on volume, 95-96.
engine, 185-186.
for cooking, 151, 152.
illuminating, 92, 93, 150, 151.
liquefaction, 97, 98.
meter, 93, 94.
natural, 152.
Gasolene, 149, 150.
as cleaning agent, 227, 243.
in gas engine, 185, 186.
Gauge, pressure, 92-94.
Gelatin, plate and film, 129.
Glass, kinds of, 119.
molding of, 40.
non-conductor, 321.
Grape juice, fermented with millet, 233.
Gravity cell, 309, 310.
Grease, and lye, 221.
and soap making, 223.
Gulf Stream, 24.
Hard water, and soap, 225.
Harp, 295.
Headache, 124, 125.
powders, 259.
Health, effect of diet, 62, 64.
Heat, 9.
absorbed in boiling, 31-32.
and disease germs, 250.
and food, 252.
and friction, 47.
and light, 142, 147.
and oxidation, 45, 48, 49.
and wave motion, 145-147.
conduction, 25.
convection, 24, 25.
from burning hydrogen, 80.
from electricity, 312-315, 339.
needed to melt substances, 39.
of fusion, 40.
of vaporization, 32.
produced by compression, 96.
relation of water to weather, 29, 40.
set free by freezing water, 40.
sources of, 29-30.
specific, 28-29.
temperature, 27.
unit of, 27, 28.
Heating effect of electric current, 312-315.
Heating of buildings: central heating plant, 19.
fireplaces, 17-18.
Heating, furnaces, 19.
hot water, 19-22.
Helix, 318.
Horse power, 173, 351.
Hot water heating, 19-22.
Hues, primary, 135.
Humidity, 38.
proper percentage for health and comfort, 38, 39.
Humus, 216, 217.
Hydrocarbons, 149.
Hydrochloric acid, composition, 227.
in bleaching, 241.
to make a salt, 227.
to make carbon dioxide, 55.
to make chlorine, 238.
to make hydrogen, 80.
Hydrogen, 65, 66.
and chlorine, 239.
and water, 79.
chemical conduct, 126-127.
flame, 80.
in voltaic cell, 307.
peroxide, 53, 252.
preparation, 80.
to liquefy, 97.
Ice, lighter than water, 42.
manufacture of, 98, 99.
Ice cream freezers, 44.
Illuminating gas, manufacture of, 150, 151.
measurement of quantity consumed, 93, 94.
test of pressure, 92, 93.
Illumination, intensity of, 105, 106.
Image, in mirror, 108, 111.
Incandescent lighting, 107, 314.
Incidence, angle of, 110.
Inclined plane, 162-166.
screw, 166.
wedge, 166.
Indigo, 218.
Induced current, 346-347.
Ink spots, removal of, 243.
Insoluble substances, 71.
Insulators, electric, 324.
Intensity, of light, 105-107.
of sound, 270-271.
Interval, in musical scale, 283.
Iron, forging, 41.
filings, 329.
galvanizing, 49.
oxidation of, 48.
Irrigation, 193-194.
Isobaric lines, 88, 91.
Isothermal lines, 89, 91.
Johnstown flood, 214, 215.
Kerosene, 149, 150.
Kilowatt, 351.
Lactic acid, 230.
Leaves, 132, 262.
Lens, 117-121.
concave, 118.
converging, 118.
crystalline, of eye, 122.
focal length, 118.
material, 119.
refractive power, 119.
Lever, 158-162.
examples, 160-162.
fulcrum, 159, 160.
Life, and carbon dioxide, 54.
and nitrogen, 261.
and oxygen, 49, 54.
Lifting pumps, 189-192.
Light, absorption, 135-138.
and heat, 142-147.
a wave motion, 145-147.
bent rays, 113, 114.
chemical action, 126-127.
disease, 131-132.
essential to life, 131, 132.
fading illumination, 105, 106.
influence on color, 134.
reflection of, 109-112.
refraction of, 113-125.
travels in a straight line, 108.
white, composed of colors, 134.
Lighting, artificial, 148-153.
Lime, chloride of, 240, 251.
Limewater, 220.
and carbon dioxide, 228.
Linen, bleaching, 241.
dyeing, 245-247.
Lines, of force, 329-331, 334.
isobaric, 88, 91.
isothermal, 89, 91.
Liquefaction of gases, 97, 98.
Liquid air, 98.
Liquid soap, 223, 224.
Litmus, action of acids, 220.
action of bases, 221, 222.
action of neutral substance, 222.
Logwood dyes, 245, 247, 248.
Los Angeles aqueduct, 211.
Lye, 221, 222.
Machines, compound, 171.
inclined plane, 162-166.
lever, 158-162.
pulley, 166-169.
wheel and axle, 169-171.
Madder, for dyes, 245.
Magnet, 328.
electro-, 319.
field of, 329-331.
lines of force about, 329-331.
poles of, 330-332.
properties of electricity, 318.
Magnetic, needle, 328.
poles, 329-331.
Magnifying power, of a lens, 115.
of a microscope, 115.
of a telescope, 115.
Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, 71.
Manganese dioxide, 46.
chlorine made from, 238.
oxygen made from, 46.
Marble, for carbon dioxide, 55.
Matches, 47.
safety, 47-48.
Matching colors, 137.
Matter, conservation of, 58, 59.
Meat, 66.
preservation of, 253.
Mechanical devices, 154, 155.
Melting, 39, 40.
Melting point, 40.
Melting substances without a definite melting point, 40.
Mercerized cotton, 218.
Mercury, barometer, 84.
thermometer, 14-17.
Metals, electroplating, 317.
preservation by paint, 253-254.
veins deposited by precipitation, 72, 73.
welding, 315.
Meter, gas, 93, 94.
MicroΓΆrganisms, 132, 133.
Microscope, 115.
Milk, boiling point, 32.
Pasteurized, 250.
Minerals, in foods, 62, 63.
in water, 70, 71.
Mirrors, 108-112.
distance of image behind mirror, 111.
distance of object in front of mirror, 111.
image a duplicate of object. 111.
Molding of glass, 40.
Molecule, 100-103.
Mordants, 247, 248, 249.
Morphine, 257.
Morse, telegraphic code, 324.
Motion, in sound, 266, 278, 280.
in work, 156.
Motor, electric, 336.
principle of, 333.
street car, 337.
Mouth breathing, 50.
cause of, 51.
Movable pulley, 167, 168.
Music, 278.
Musical instruments, percussion, 299.
stringed, 284-295.
wind, 295, 299.
Musical scale, 282.
Naphtha in gas engines, 185.
Naphthalene, 152.
Narcotics, 255.
Natural gas, 152.
Needle, magnetic, 328.
Negative, electrode, 308.
photographic, 130.
Neutral substance, 222.
and litmus, 222.
Neutralization, 222.
Niagara Falls, 176.
Nitrogen, 66.
and bacteria, 263.
and plant life, 261.
in atmosphere, 261.
in fertilizer, 262-265.
in food, 66.
preparation of, 261.
properties of, 261.
Noise in music, 280.
Non-conductors,
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