General Science by Bertha May Clark (best historical fiction books of all time TXT) π
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boiling water, and after cooling for a few minutes, it is placed in a vessel containing finely chopped ice (Fig. 10). The mercury column falls rapidly, but finally remains stationary, and at this level another scratch is made on the tube and the point is marked 32Β°. The space between these two points, which represent the temperatures of boiling water and of melting ice, is divided into 180 equal parts called degrees. The thermometer in use in the United States is marked in this way and is called the Fahrenheit thermometer after its designer. Before the degrees are etched on the thermometer the open end of the tube is sealed.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Determining one of the fixed points of a thermometer.]
The Centigrade thermometer, in use in foreign countries and in all scientific work, is similar to the Fahrenheit except that the fixed points are marked 100Β° and 0Β°, and the interval between the points is divided into 100 equal parts instead of into 180.
The boiling point of
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of electricity, 321-322.
of heat, 25.
Nutcracker, as a lever, 162.
Oboe, 297.
Octave, 284.
Odors, 101.
Ohm, unit of resistance, 345.
Oil, gasoline, 149, 150.
kerosene, 149, 150.
lubricating, 174.
olive, 16.
Orchestra grouping, 299.
Ore, 72.
Organ pipes, 297.
Overtones, 290-293.
Oxalic acid, 247, 248.
Oxidation, 45-59.
and decay, 49.
heat the result of, 49-52.
in human body, 49, 53.
of iron, 48.
Oxygen, 66.
and bleaching, 239.
and combustion, 45.
and food, 66.
and plants, 55.
and the human body, 50.
and water, 79, 80.
in the atmosphere, 45.
preparation of, 46.
Paint, as wood and metal preservatives, 253, 254.
removal of stains, 243.
Paper making, 219.
Paraffin, 150, 321.
Pasteurized milk, 250.
Patent medicines, 257-260.
Peas, sources of nitrogen, 263.
Pelton wheel, 177.
Percussion instruments, 299.
Period of a body, 273.
Peroxide of hydrogen, 53, 252
Petrolatum, 150.
Petroleum, 149, 150.
Phonograph, 303-305.
Phosphorus, in fertilizer, 263, 264.
in making nitrogen, 261.
in matches, 47, 48.
poisoning by, 47.
Photography, 127-131.
Photometer, 107.
Pianos, 284-292.
Pin wheel, 181.
Pitch of sound, 280, 281.
cause of, 282.
in wind instruments, 296-299.
Plane, inclined, 162-166.
Plants, and atmosphere, 55.
and light, 131-132.
and nitrogen, 261.
Plate developing, photographic, 128.
Pneumatic dispatch tube, 205.
Poles, magnetic, 330-332.
of cell, 308.
Positive electrode, 308.
Potash, in fertilizer, 263-265.
Potassium chlorate and oxygen, 46.
permanganate, 100.
tartrate and Rochelle salt, 227.
Power, candle, 105-107.
electric, 351.
horse, 173, 351.
sources of, 174, 175, 185.
transmission by belts, 171.
water, 176-180.
Precipitation, 72, 73.
Preservatives, food, 252.
wood and metal, 253-254.
Pressure, atmospheric, 82-86.
calculation of atmospheric, 83, 84.
calculation of gas, 92, 93.
calculation of water, 94.
gauge, 92-94.
of illuminating gas, 93.
relation of pressure of gas to volume, 95, 96.
water pressure, 208-211, 214-216.
within the body, 86.
Primary colors, 135.
Print, photographic, 131.
Printing, color designs in cloth, 248, 249.
electrotype, 317.
Prisms, 135.
refraction through, 117.
Proteids, 66.
Pulleys, 166-169.
applications of, 169.
Pump, 187-205.
air, 201-205.
force, 192, 193.
lifting, 189-192.
Pupil of the eye, 122.
Pure food laws, bleaching, 242.
preservatives, 252.
Purification of water, 77, 196.
Push button, 321.
Radiator, 19-21.
Railroads, grading of, 165-166.
Rain, 36, 37.
Rainbow, 134.
Rain water, 225.
Reflection, angle of, 110.
of light, 109-112.
of sound, 278, 279.
Refraction, angle of, 114.
by atmosphere, 114.
of light, 113.
uses of, 115-116.
Relay, telegraph, 325.
Reservoir, 214.
artificial, 211.
construction of, 214-216.
natural, 211.
Resistance, electrical, 312.
internal, of cell, 343.
unit of, 345.
Resonance, 276.
River, volume and value of, 180.
Roads, application of inclined plane to, 165-166.
Rochelle salt, 227, 231.
Rocks, effect of freezing water on, 42-43.
water as a solvent, 71.
Rosin, obtained by distillation, 35.
of heat, 25.
Nutcracker, as a lever, 162.
Oboe, 297.
Octave, 284.
Odors, 101.
Ohm, unit of resistance, 345.
Oil, gasoline, 149, 150.
kerosene, 149, 150.
lubricating, 174.
olive, 16.
Orchestra grouping, 299.
Ore, 72.
Organ pipes, 297.
Overtones, 290-293.
Oxalic acid, 247, 248.
Oxidation, 45-59.
and decay, 49.
heat the result of, 49-52.
in human body, 49, 53.
of iron, 48.
Oxygen, 66.
and bleaching, 239.
and combustion, 45.
and food, 66.
and plants, 55.
and the human body, 50.
and water, 79, 80.
in the atmosphere, 45.
preparation of, 46.
Paint, as wood and metal preservatives, 253, 254.
removal of stains, 243.
Paper making, 219.
Paraffin, 150, 321.
Pasteurized milk, 250.
Patent medicines, 257-260.
Peas, sources of nitrogen, 263.
Pelton wheel, 177.
Percussion instruments, 299.
Period of a body, 273.
Peroxide of hydrogen, 53, 252
Petrolatum, 150.
Petroleum, 149, 150.
Phonograph, 303-305.
Phosphorus, in fertilizer, 263, 264.
in making nitrogen, 261.
in matches, 47, 48.
poisoning by, 47.
Photography, 127-131.
Photometer, 107.
Pianos, 284-292.
Pin wheel, 181.
Pitch of sound, 280, 281.
cause of, 282.
in wind instruments, 296-299.
Plane, inclined, 162-166.
Plants, and atmosphere, 55.
and light, 131-132.
and nitrogen, 261.
Plate developing, photographic, 128.
Pneumatic dispatch tube, 205.
Poles, magnetic, 330-332.
of cell, 308.
Positive electrode, 308.
Potash, in fertilizer, 263-265.
Potassium chlorate and oxygen, 46.
permanganate, 100.
tartrate and Rochelle salt, 227.
Power, candle, 105-107.
electric, 351.
horse, 173, 351.
sources of, 174, 175, 185.
transmission by belts, 171.
water, 176-180.
Precipitation, 72, 73.
Preservatives, food, 252.
wood and metal, 253-254.
Pressure, atmospheric, 82-86.
calculation of atmospheric, 83, 84.
calculation of gas, 92, 93.
calculation of water, 94.
gauge, 92-94.
of illuminating gas, 93.
relation of pressure of gas to volume, 95, 96.
water pressure, 208-211, 214-216.
within the body, 86.
Primary colors, 135.
Print, photographic, 131.
Printing, color designs in cloth, 248, 249.
electrotype, 317.
Prisms, 135.
refraction through, 117.
Proteids, 66.
Pulleys, 166-169.
applications of, 169.
Pump, 187-205.
air, 201-205.
force, 192, 193.
lifting, 189-192.
Pupil of the eye, 122.
Pure food laws, bleaching, 242.
preservatives, 252.
Purification of water, 77, 196.
Push button, 321.
Radiator, 19-21.
Railroads, grading of, 165-166.
Rain, 36, 37.
Rainbow, 134.
Rain water, 225.
Reflection, angle of, 110.
of light, 109-112.
of sound, 278, 279.
Refraction, angle of, 114.
by atmosphere, 114.
of light, 113.
uses of, 115-116.
Relay, telegraph, 325.
Reservoir, 214.
artificial, 211.
construction of, 214-216.
natural, 211.
Resistance, electrical, 312.
internal, of cell, 343.
unit of, 345.
Resonance, 276.
River, volume and value of, 180.
Roads, application of inclined plane to, 165-166.
Rochelle salt, 227, 231.
Rocks, effect of freezing water on, 42-43.
water as a solvent, 71.
Rosin, obtained by distillation, 35.
Safety matches, 47-48.
Salicylic acid, 253.
Salt, 227-228.
Salts, 227.
general properties, 227.
in ocean, 227.
smelling, 222.
Saturation of air, 37.
Scale, musical, 282.
Screw, and inclined plane, 166.
Seaweed, 265.
Seidlitz powder, 231.
Self-raising flour, 231.
Sewage, disposition of, 198-199.
of camps, 196.
source of revenue, 201.
Sewer gas, 57.
Silk, bleaching, 241.
dyeing, 245-247.
Silver chloride, 127-131.
Simple colors, 138.
Simple substances, 103.
Siren, 280.
Smelling salts, 222.
Snow, 36-37.
Soap, 222-224.
and hard water, 225.
liquid, 223-224.
preparation, 223.
Soda, baking, 227, 228-229.
benzoate, 253.
caustic, 218, 222, 223, 227.
washing, 225, 226, 229.
Soda mints, 231.
Sodium, bicarbonate, 56, 227, 228, 230-231.
carbonate, 228.
chloride, 228.
Soil, deposited by streams, 73.
Solenoid, 318.
Solution, 70.
Soothing sirup, 258.
Sound, and motion, 266, 278.
musical, 278.
nature of, 266.
reflection, 277.
speed of, 271-272.
transmission of, 267-271.
velocity of, 271-272.
waves, 272-274.
Sounder, telegraph, 324.
Sounding board, 277.
Sour milk in cooking, 230.
Specific heat, 28-29.
Spectrum, 134-135.
Speed, of sound, 271, 272.
Spontaneous combustion, 52.
Stains, removal of, 226, 243.
Standpipes, 212.
Starch, 65.
Steam, and work, 183-184.
engine, 183-185.
heat of vaporization, 32.
heating by, 33.
turbine, 183-184.
Steel, forging and annealing, 16.
Stoves, 18-19.
Streams, carriers of mud, 73.
volume of, 179-180.
Street cars, electric, 337.
Stringed instruments, 284-295.
Strings, vibrating, 286-290.
Sugar, 16, 65.
fermented by yeast, 234.
Sulphur, 66.
as disinfectant, 251.
in making sulphurous acid, 242.
Sulphuric acid, in bleaching, 240,241.
in fire extinguisher, 55.
in making of hydrogen, 80.
in voltaic cell, 307.
Sulphurous acid, in bleaching, 242.
preparation, 242.
Sun, energy derived from, 143-144.
source of heat, 29-30.
Sunlight, 135.
and bacteria, 133.
and chemical action, 126-127.
Sympathetic vibrations, 274-277.
Tallow, 105, 148.
Tartar, cream of, 229.
Telegraph, 322.
long distance, 327.
relay, 325.
sounder, 324.
Telephone, 350-351.
Temperature, 13-14.
as measurement of heat present, 27.
in detecting adulterants, 17.
in forging steel, 16.
in making sirups, 16.
measurement of, 14-15.
Thermometer, 14-17.
Centigrade, 15.
Fahrenheit, 15.
Tinder box, 47.
Transmission, of light, 145-147.
of sound, 267-271.
Tuning fork, 266, 273, 278, 290.
Turbine, steam, 183.
water, 178.
Turpentine, and grease, 226.
by distillation, 35.
Unleavened bread, 233.
Vacuum, sound in, 268.
Vapor, in atmosphere, 36-38.
Vaporization, heat of, 32.
Varnish, on candies, 253.
Vegetable matter, and coal, 30.
and gas, 30.
and oil, 30.
Veins, formation in rock, 72-73.
Velocity, of sound, 271-272.
Ventilation, 21-24, 54.
need of, 38.
Vibration, of strings, 286-290.
sympathetic, 274-277.
Viola, 295.
Violin, 295.
Violoncello, 295.
Vocal cords, 300.
Voice, 300.
Volt, 344.
Voltage, 345.
Voltaic cell, 306-308, 310.
Voltmeter, 344.
Volume, of a stream, 179-180.
relation of pressure of a gas, 95-96.
Washing powders, 224-226.
soda, 229.
Water, action in nature, 70-74.
amount used daily per person, 181.
and hydrogen, 79.
and oxygen, 79, 80.
as solvent, 70-71.
boiling, 77.
boiling point, 15.
composition, 79-80.
condensation, 33.
dams and reservoirs, 214-216.
density, 11.
distilled, 34, 77.
drinking, 75-77, 195-201.
electrolysis, 79-80.
evaporation, 33-34.
expansion, 9-10, 41-42.
filtration, 77.
freezing, 40-41.
hard, 225.
heat of fusion, 40.
impurities, 76-77.
in atmosphere, 36-38.
in food, 75.
in human body, 75.
in vegetables, 75.
influence on climate, 29, 40.
irrigation, 193-194.
minerals in, 70-71.
ocean, 265.
power, 176-180.
precipitates, 72, 73.
pressure, 208-211, 214-216.
purification, 77.
rain, 225.
running, value of, 178-180.
source of, 78.
steam, 32.
waves, 145-147.
weight, 208-209, 215.
wells, 195-201.
wheels, 176-180.
work under, 203-205.
Water supply, and forests, 216-217.
cost, 212-214.
of city, 206-212, 217.
Watt, 351.
Waves, heat, 145-147.
light, 145-147.
sound, 268, 272-274.
water, 145-147.
Weather, bureau, 87-91.
forecasts, 38-39, 86-88.
relation of water to, 29, 40.
Weather maps, 89-91.
Wedge, and inclined plane, 166.
Weight, of air, 86.
of water, 208-209, 215.
Welding, by electricity, 315.
Wells, 195-201.
drilled, 199.
driven, 196-197.
Wheel and axle, 169-171.
cogwheels, 170.
windlass, 169.
Wheelbarrow as lever,
Salicylic acid, 253.
Salt, 227-228.
Salts, 227.
general properties, 227.
in ocean, 227.
smelling, 222.
Saturation of air, 37.
Scale, musical, 282.
Screw, and inclined plane, 166.
Seaweed, 265.
Seidlitz powder, 231.
Self-raising flour, 231.
Sewage, disposition of, 198-199.
of camps, 196.
source of revenue, 201.
Sewer gas, 57.
Silk, bleaching, 241.
dyeing, 245-247.
Silver chloride, 127-131.
Simple colors, 138.
Simple substances, 103.
Siren, 280.
Smelling salts, 222.
Snow, 36-37.
Soap, 222-224.
and hard water, 225.
liquid, 223-224.
preparation, 223.
Soda, baking, 227, 228-229.
benzoate, 253.
caustic, 218, 222, 223, 227.
washing, 225, 226, 229.
Soda mints, 231.
Sodium, bicarbonate, 56, 227, 228, 230-231.
carbonate, 228.
chloride, 228.
Soil, deposited by streams, 73.
Solenoid, 318.
Solution, 70.
Soothing sirup, 258.
Sound, and motion, 266, 278.
musical, 278.
nature of, 266.
reflection, 277.
speed of, 271-272.
transmission of, 267-271.
velocity of, 271-272.
waves, 272-274.
Sounder, telegraph, 324.
Sounding board, 277.
Sour milk in cooking, 230.
Specific heat, 28-29.
Spectrum, 134-135.
Speed, of sound, 271, 272.
Spontaneous combustion, 52.
Stains, removal of, 226, 243.
Standpipes, 212.
Starch, 65.
Steam, and work, 183-184.
engine, 183-185.
heat of vaporization, 32.
heating by, 33.
turbine, 183-184.
Steel, forging and annealing, 16.
Stoves, 18-19.
Streams, carriers of mud, 73.
volume of, 179-180.
Street cars, electric, 337.
Stringed instruments, 284-295.
Strings, vibrating, 286-290.
Sugar, 16, 65.
fermented by yeast, 234.
Sulphur, 66.
as disinfectant, 251.
in making sulphurous acid, 242.
Sulphuric acid, in bleaching, 240,241.
in fire extinguisher, 55.
in making of hydrogen, 80.
in voltaic cell, 307.
Sulphurous acid, in bleaching, 242.
preparation, 242.
Sun, energy derived from, 143-144.
source of heat, 29-30.
Sunlight, 135.
and bacteria, 133.
and chemical action, 126-127.
Sympathetic vibrations, 274-277.
Tallow, 105, 148.
Tartar, cream of, 229.
Telegraph, 322.
long distance, 327.
relay, 325.
sounder, 324.
Telephone, 350-351.
Temperature, 13-14.
as measurement of heat present, 27.
in detecting adulterants, 17.
in forging steel, 16.
in making sirups, 16.
measurement of, 14-15.
Thermometer, 14-17.
Centigrade, 15.
Fahrenheit, 15.
Tinder box, 47.
Transmission, of light, 145-147.
of sound, 267-271.
Tuning fork, 266, 273, 278, 290.
Turbine, steam, 183.
water, 178.
Turpentine, and grease, 226.
by distillation, 35.
Unleavened bread, 233.
Vacuum, sound in, 268.
Vapor, in atmosphere, 36-38.
Vaporization, heat of, 32.
Varnish, on candies, 253.
Vegetable matter, and coal, 30.
and gas, 30.
and oil, 30.
Veins, formation in rock, 72-73.
Velocity, of sound, 271-272.
Ventilation, 21-24, 54.
need of, 38.
Vibration, of strings, 286-290.
sympathetic, 274-277.
Viola, 295.
Violin, 295.
Violoncello, 295.
Vocal cords, 300.
Voice, 300.
Volt, 344.
Voltage, 345.
Voltaic cell, 306-308, 310.
Voltmeter, 344.
Volume, of a stream, 179-180.
relation of pressure of a gas, 95-96.
Washing powders, 224-226.
soda, 229.
Water, action in nature, 70-74.
amount used daily per person, 181.
and hydrogen, 79.
and oxygen, 79, 80.
as solvent, 70-71.
boiling, 77.
boiling point, 15.
composition, 79-80.
condensation, 33.
dams and reservoirs, 214-216.
density, 11.
distilled, 34, 77.
drinking, 75-77, 195-201.
electrolysis, 79-80.
evaporation, 33-34.
expansion, 9-10, 41-42.
filtration, 77.
freezing, 40-41.
hard, 225.
heat of fusion, 40.
impurities, 76-77.
in atmosphere, 36-38.
in food, 75.
in human body, 75.
in vegetables, 75.
influence on climate, 29, 40.
irrigation, 193-194.
minerals in, 70-71.
ocean, 265.
power, 176-180.
precipitates, 72, 73.
pressure, 208-211, 214-216.
purification, 77.
rain, 225.
running, value of, 178-180.
source of, 78.
steam, 32.
waves, 145-147.
weight, 208-209, 215.
wells, 195-201.
wheels, 176-180.
work under, 203-205.
Water supply, and forests, 216-217.
cost, 212-214.
of city, 206-212, 217.
Watt, 351.
Waves, heat, 145-147.
light, 145-147.
sound, 268, 272-274.
water, 145-147.
Weather, bureau, 87-91.
forecasts, 38-39, 86-88.
relation of water to, 29, 40.
Weather maps, 89-91.
Wedge, and inclined plane, 166.
Weight, of air, 86.
of water, 208-209, 215.
Welding, by electricity, 315.
Wells, 195-201.
drilled, 199.
driven, 196-197.
Wheel and axle, 169-171.
cogwheels, 170.
windlass, 169.
Wheelbarrow as lever,
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