The Power of Movement in Plants by Charles Darwin (best fiction books to read TXT) 📕

Embryology of Leaves.—A few facts have been incidentally given in this chapter on what may be called the embryology of leaves. With most plants the first leaf which is developed after the cotyledons, resembles closely the leaves produced by the mature plant, but this is not always the case.

the first leaves produced by some species of Drosera, for instance by D.

Capensis, differ widely in shape from those borne by the mature plant, and resemble closely the leaves of D. rotundifolia, as was shown to us by Prof.

Williamson of Manchester. The first true leaf of * ‘Die Schutzmittel des Pollens,’ 1873, pp. 30-39.

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the gorse, or Ulex, is not narrow and spinose like the older leaves. On the other hand, with many Leguminous plants, for instance, Cassia, Acacia lophantha, etc., the first leaf has essentially the same character as the older leaves, excepting that it bears fewer leaflets. In Trifolium the first leaf generally bears only a single leaflet instead of three, and this differs somewhat in shape from the corresponding leaflet on the older leaves. Now, with Trifolium Pannonicum the first true leaf on some seedlings was unifoliate, and on others completely trifoliate; and between these two extreme states there were all sorts of gradations, some seedlings bearing a single leaflet more or less deeply notched on one or both sides, and some bearing a single additional and perfect lateral leaflet. Here, then, we have the rare opportunity of seeing a structure proper to a more advanced age, in the act of gradually encroaching on and replacing an earlier or embryological condition.

The genus Melilotus is closely allied to Trifolium, and the first leaf bears only a single leaflet, which at night rotates on its axis so as to present one lateral edge to the zenith. Hence it sleeps like the terminal leaflet of a mature plant, as was observed in 15 species, and wholly unlike the corresponding leaflet of Trifolium, which simply bends upwards. It is therefore a curious fact that in one of these 15 species, viz., M. Taurica (and in a lesser degree in two others), leaves arising from young shoots, produced on plants which had been cut down and kept in pots during the winter in the greenhouse, slept like the leaves of a Trifolium, whilst the leaves on the fully-grown branches on these same plants afterwards slept normally like those of a Melilotus. If young shoots rising from the ground may be considered as new individuals, partaking to a certain extent of the nature of seedlings, then the peculiar manner in which their leaves slept may be considered

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as an embryological habit, probably the result of Melilotus being descended from some form which slept like a Trifolium. This view is partially supported by the leaves on old and young branches of another species, M.

Messanensis (not included in the above 15 species), always sleeping like those of a Trifolium.

The first true leaf of Mimosa albida consists of a simple petiole, often bearing three pairs of leaflets, all of which are of nearly equal size and of the same shape: the second leaf differs widely from the first, and resembles that on a mature plant (see Fig. 159, p. 379), for it consists of two pinnae, each of which bears two pairs of leaflets, of which the inner basal one is very small. But at the base of each pinna there is a pair of minute points, evidently rudiments of leaflets, for they are of unequal sizes, like the two succeeding leaflets. These rudiments are in one sense embryological, for they exist only during the youth of the leaf, falling off and disappearing as soon as it is fully grown.

With Desmodium gyrans the two lateral leaflets are very much smaller than the corresponding leaflets in most of the species in this large genus; they vary also in position and size; one or both are sometimes absent; and they do not sleep like the fully-developed leaflets. They may therefore be considered as almost rudimentary; and in accordance with the general principles of embryology, they ought to be more constantly and fully developed on very young than on old plants. But this is not the case, for they were quite absent on some young seedlings, and did not appear until from 10 to 20 leaves had been formed. This fact leads to the suspicion that D. gyrans is descended through a unifoliate form (of which some exist) from a trifoliate species; and that the little lateral leaflets reappear through reversion. However this may be,

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the interesting fact of the pulvini or organs of movement of these little leaflets, not having been reduced nearly so much as their blades—taking the large terminal leaflet as the standard of comparison—gives us probably the proximate cause of their extraordinary power of gyration.

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CHAPTER VIII.

MODIFIED CIRCUMNUTATION: MOVEMENTS EXCITED BY LIGHT.

Distinction between heliotropism and the effects of light on the periodicity of the movements of leaves—Heliotropic movements of Beta, Solanum, Zea, and Avena—Heliotropic movements towards an obscure light in Apios, Brassica, Phalaris, Tropaeolum, and Cassia—Apheliotropic movements of tendrils of Bignonia—Of flower-peduncles of Cyclamen—Burying of the pods—Heliotropism and apheliotropism modified forms of circumnutation—

Steps by which one movement is converted into the other—

Transversal-heliotropismus or diaheliotropism influenced by epinasty, the weight of the part and apogeotropism—Apogeotropism overcome during the middle of the day by diaheliotropism—Effects of the weight of the blades of cotyledons—So called diurnal sleep—Chlorophyll injured by intense light—Movements to avoid intense light

SACHS first clearly pointed out the important difference between the action of light in modifying the periodic movements of leaves, and in causing them to bend towards its source.* The latter, or heliotropic movements are determined by the direction of the light, whilst periodic movements are affected by changes in its intensity and not by its direction. The periodicity of the circumnutating movement often continues for some time in darkness, as we have seen in the last chapter; whilst heliotropic bending ceases very quickly when the light fails. Nevertheless, plants which have ceased through long-continued darkness to move periodically, if re-exposed to the light are still, according to Sachs, heliotropic.

Apheliotropism, or, as usually designated, negative * ‘Physiologie Veg.’ (French Translation), 1868, pp. 42, 517, etc.

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heliotropism, implies that a plant, when unequally illuminated on the two sides, bends from the light, instead of, as in the last sub-class of cases, towards it; but apheliotropism is comparatively rare, at least in a well-marked degree. There is a third and large sub-class of cases, namely, those of “transversal-Heliotropismus” of Frank, which we will here call diaheliotropism. Parts of plants, under this influence, place themselves more or less transversely to the direction whence the light proceeds, and are thus fully illuminated. There is a fourth sub-class, as far as the final cause of the movement is concerned; for the leaves of some plants when exposed to an intense and injurious amount of light direct themselves, by rising or sinking or twisting, so as to be less intensely illuminated.

Such movements have sometimes been called diurnal sleep. If thought advisable, they might be called paraheliotropic, and this term would correspond with our other terms.

It will be shown in the present chapter that all the movements included in these four sub-classes, consist of modified circumnutation. We do not pretend to say that if a part of a plant, whilst still growing, did not circumnutate—though such a supposition is most improbable—it could not bend towards the light; but, as a matter of fact, heliotropism seems always to consist of modified circumnutation. Any kind of movement in relation to light will obviously be much facilitated by each part circumnutating or bending successively in all directions, so that an already existing movement has only to be increased in some one direction, and to be lessened or stopped in the other directions, in order that it should become heliotropic, apheliotropic, etc., as the case may be. In the next chapter some observations on the sensitiveness of plants to light, their [page 420]

rate of bending towards it, and the accuracy with which they point towards its source, etc., will be given. Afterwards it will be shown—and this seems to us a point of much interest—that sensitiveness to light is sometimes confined to a small part of the plant; and that this part when stimulated by light, transmits an influence to distant parts, exciting them to bend.

Heliotropism.—When a plant which is strongly heliotropic (and species differ much in this respect) is exposed to a bright lateral light, it bends quickly towards it, and the course pursued by the stem is quite or nearly straight. But if the light is much dimmed, or occasionally interrupted, or admitted in only a slightly oblique direction, the course pursued is more or less zigzag; and as we have seen and shall again see, such zigzag movement results from the elongation or drawing out of the ellipses, loops, etc., which the plant would have described, if it had been illuminated from above. On several occasions we were much struck with this fact, whilst observing the circumnutation of highly sensitive seedlings, which were unintentionally illuminated rather obliquely, or only at successive intervals of time.

Fig. 168. Beta vulgaris: circumnutation of hypocotyl, deflected by the light being slightly lateral, traced on a horizontal glass from 8.30 A.M.

to 5.30 P.M. Direction of the lighted taper by which it was illuminated shown by a line joining the first and penultimate dots. Figure reduced to one-third of the original scale.

[For instance two young seedlings of Beta vulgaris were placed in the middle of a room with north-east windows, and were kept covered up, except during each observation which lasted for only a minute or two; but the result was that their hypocotyls bowed themselves to the side, whence some light occasionally entered, in lines which were [page 421]

only slightly zigzag. Although not a single ellipse was even approximately formed, we inferred from the zigzag lines - and, as it proved, correctly—

that their hypocotyls were circumnutating, for on the following day these same seedlings were placed in a completely darkened room, and were observed each time by the aid of a small wax taper held almost directly above them, and their movements were traced on a horizontal glass above; and now their hypocotyls clearly circumnutated (Fig. 168, and Fig. 39, formerly given, p.

52); yet they moved a short distance towards the side where the taper was held up. If we look at these diagrams, and suppose that the taper had been held more on one side, and that the hypocotyls, still circumnutating, had bent themselves within the same time much more towards the light, long zigzag lines would obviously have been the result.

Fig. 169. Avena sativa: heliotropic movement and circumnutation of sheath-like cotyledon (1 � inch in height) traced on horizontal glass from 8 A.M. to 10.25 P.M. Oct. 16th.

Again, two seedlings of Solanum lycopersicum were illuminated from above, but accidentally a little more light entered on one than on any other side, and their hypocotyls became slightly bowed towards the brighter side; they moved in a zigzag line and described in their course two little triangles, as seen in Fig. 37 (p. 50), and in another tracing not given. The sheath-like cotyledons of Zea mays behaved, under nearly similar circumstances, in a nearly similar manner as described in our first chapter (p. 64), for they bowed themselves during the whole day towards one side, making, however, in their course some conspicuous flexures. Before we knew how greatly ordinary circumnutation was modified by a lateral light, some seedling oats, with rather old and therefore not highly sensitive cotyledons, were placed in front of a north-east window, towards which