An Introductory Course of Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Henry P. Talbot (superbooks4u txt) 📕

If a flask is used, fill it to the graduation with the soda ash solution and remove any liquid from the neck above the graduation with filter paper. Empty it into a beaker, and wash out the small flask, unless it is graduated for !delivery!, using small quantities of water, which are added to the liquid in the beaker. A second 50 cc. portion from the main solution should be measured off into a second beaker. Dilute the solutions in each beaker to 100 cc., add two drops of a solution of methyl orange (Note 1) and titrate for the alkali with the standard hydrochloric acid solution, using the alkali solution to complete the titration as already prescribed.

From the volumes of acid and alkali employed, corrected for burette errors and temperature changes, and the data derived from the standardization, calculate the percentage of alkali present, assuming it all to be present as sodium carbonate (Note 2).

[Note 1: The hydrochloric acid sets free carbonic acid which is unstable and breaks down into water and carbon dioxide, most of which escapes from the solution. Carbonic acid is a weak acid and, as such, does not yield a sufficient concentration of H^{+} ions to cause the indicator to change to a pink (see page 32).

The chemical changes involved may be summarized as follows:

2H^{+}, 2Cl^{-} + 2Na^{+}, CO_{3}^{—} —> 2Na^{+}, 2Cl^{-} + [H_{2}CO_{3}] —> H_{2}O + CO_{2}]

[Note 2: A determination of the alkali present as hydroxide in soda ash may be determined by precipitating the carbonate by the addition of barium chloride, removing the barium carbonate by filtration, and titrating the alkali in the filtrate.

The caustic alkali may also be determined by first using phenolphthalein as an indicator, which will show by its change from pink to colorless the point at which the caustic alkali has been neutralized and the carbonate has been converted to bicarbonate, and then adding methyl orange and completing the titration. The amount of acid necessary to change the methyl orange to pink is a measure of one half of the carbonate present. The results of the double titration furnish the data necessary for the determination of the caustic alkali and of the carbonate in the sample.]

PROCEDURE.—Weigh out two portions of the acid of about 1 gram each. Dissolve these in 50 cc. of warm water. Add two drops of phenolphthalein solution, and run in alkali from the burette until the solution is pink; add acid from the other burette until the pink is just destroyed, and then add 0.3 cc. (not more) in excess. Heat the solution to boiling for three minutes. If the pink returns during the boiling, discharge it with acid and again add 0.3 cc. in excess and repeat the boiling (Note 1). If the color does not then reappear, add alkali until it does, and a !drop or two! of acid in excess and boil again for one minute (Note 2). If no color reappears during this time, complete the titration in the hot solution. The end-point should be the faintest visible shade of color (or its disappearance), as the same difficulty would exist here as with methyl orange if an attempt were made to match shades of pink.

From the corrected volume of alkali required to react with the oxalic acid, calculate the percentage of the crystallized acid (H_{2}C_{2}O_{4}.2H_{2}O) in the sample (Note 3).

[Note 1: All commercial caustic soda such as that from which the standard solution was made contains some sodium carbonate. This reacts with the oxalic acid, setting free carbonic acid, which, in turn, forms sodium bicarbonate with the remaining carbonate:

H_{2}CO_{3} + Na_{2}CO_{3} —> 2HNaCO_{3}.

This compound does not hydrolyze sufficiently to furnish enough OH^{-} ions to cause phenolphthalein to remain pink; hence, the color of the indicator is discharged in cold solutions at the point at which bicarbonate is formed. If, however, the solution is heated to boiling, the bicarbonate loses carbon dioxide and water, and reverts to sodium carbonate, which causes the indicator to become again pink:

2HNaCO_{3} —> H_{2}O + CO_{2} + Na_{2}CO_{3}.

By adding successive portions of hydrochloric acid and boiling, the carbonate is ultimately all brought into reaction.

The student should make sure that the difference in behavior of the two indicators, methyl orange and phenolphthalein, is understood.]

[Note 2: Hydrochloric acid is volatilized from aqueous solutions, except such as are very dilute. If the directions in the procedure are strictly followed, no loss of acid need be feared, but the amount added in excess should not be greater than 0.3-0.4 cc.]

[Note 3: Attention has already been called to the fact that the color changes in the different indicators occur at varying concentrations of H^{+} or OH^{-} ions. They do not indicate exact theoretical neutrality, but a particular indicator always shows its color change at a particular concentration of H^{+} or OH^{-} ions. The results of titration with a given indicator are, therefore, comparable. As a matter of fact, a small error is involved in the procedure as outlined above. The comparison of the acid and alkali solutions was made, using methyl orange as an indicator, while the titration of the oxalic acid is made with the use of phenolphthalein. For our present purposes the small error may be neglected but, if time permits, the student is recommended to standardize the alkali solution against one of the substances named in Note 1, page 41, and also to ascertain the comparative value of the acid and alkali solutions, using phenolphthalein as indicator throughout, and conducting the titrations as described above. This will insure complete accuracy.]

In the oxidation processes of volumetric analysis standard solutions of oxidizing agents and of reducing agents take the place of the acid and alkali solutions of the neutralization processes already studied. Just as an acid solution was the principal reagent in alkalimetry, and the alkali solution used only to make certain of the end-point, the solution of the oxidizing agent is the principal reagent for the titration of substances exerting a reducing action. It is, in general, true that oxidizable substances are determined by !direct! titration, while oxidizing substances are determined by !indirect! titration.

The important oxidizing agents employed in volumetric solutions are potassium bichromate, potassium permangenate, potassium ferricyanide, iodine, ferric chloride, and sodium hypochlorite.

The important reducing agents which are used in the form of standard solutions are ferrous sulphate (or ferrous ammonium sulphate), oxalic acid, sodium thiosulphate, stannous chloride, arsenious acid, and potassium cyanide. Other reducing agents, as sulphurous acid, sulphureted hydrogen, and zinc (nascent hydrogen), may take part in the processes, but not as standard solutions.

The most important combinations among the foregoing are: Potassium bichromate and ferrous salts; potassium permanganate and ferrous salts; potassium permanganate and oxalic acid, or its derivatives; iodine and sodium thiosulphate; hypochlorites and arsenious acid.

Ferrous salts may be promptly and completely oxidized to ferric salts, even in cold solution, by the addition of potassium bichromate, provided sufficient acid is present to hold in solution the ferric and chromic compounds which are formed.

The acid may be either hydrochloric or sulphuric, but the former is usually preferred, since it is by far the best solvent for iron and its compounds. The reaction in the presence of hydrochloric acid is as follows:

6FeCl_{2} + K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7} + 14HCl —> 6FeCl_{3} + 2CrCl_{3} + 2KCl + 7H_{2}O.

It will be recalled that the system of normal solutions is based upon the equivalence of the reagents which they contain to 8 grams of oxygen or 1 gram of hydrogen. A normal solution of an oxidizing agent should, therefore, contain that amount per liter which is equivalent in oxidizing power to 8 grams of oxygen; a normal reducing solution must be equivalent in reducing power to 1 gram of hydrogen. In order to determine what the amount per liter will be it is necessary to know how the reagents enter into reaction. The two solutions to be employed in the process under consideration are those of potassium bichromate and ferrous sulphate. The reaction between them, in the presence of an excess of sulphuric acid, may be expressed as follows:

6FeSO_{4} + K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7} + 7H_{2}SO_{4} —> 3Fe_{2}(SO_{4}){3} + K{2}SO_{4} + Cr_{2}(SO_{4}){3} + 7H{2}O.

If the compounds of iron and chromium, with which alone we are now concerned, be written in such a way as to show the oxides of these elements in each, they would appear as follows: On the left-hand side of the equation 6(FeO.SO_{3}) and K_{2}O.2CrO_{3}; on the right-hand side, 3(Fe_{2}O_{3}.3SO_{3}) and Cr_{2}O_{3}.3SO_{3}. A careful inspection shows that there are three less oxygen atoms associated with chromium atoms on the right-hand side of the equation than on the left-hand, but there are three more oxygen atoms associated with iron atoms on the right than on the left. In other words, a molecule of potassium bichromate has given up three atoms of oxygen for oxidation purposes; i.e., a molecular weight in grams of the bichromate (294.2) will furnish 3 X 16 or 48 grams of oxygen for oxidation purposes. As this 48 grams is six times 8 grams, the basis of the system, the normal solution of potassium bichromate should contain per liter one sixth of 294.2 grams or 49.03 grams.

A further inspection of the dissected compounds above shows that six molecules of FeO.SO_{3} were required to react with the three atoms of oxygen from the bichromate. From the two equations

3H_{2} + 3O —> 3H_{2}O 6(FeO.SO_{3}) + 3O —> 3(Fe_{2}O_{3}.3SO_{3})

it is plain that one molecule of ferrous sulphate is equivalent to one atom of hydrogen in reducing power; therefore one molecular weight in grams of ferrous sulphate (151.9) is equivalent to 1 gram of hydrogen. Since the ferrous sulphate crystalline form has the formula FeSO_{4}.7H_{2}O, a normal reducing solution of this crystalline salt should contain 277.9 grams per liter.

!Approximate Strength 0.1 N!

It is possible to purify commercial potassium bichromate by recrystallization from hot water. It must then be dried and cautiously heated to fusion to expel the last traces of moisture, but not sufficiently high to expel any oxygen. The pure salt thus prepared, may be weighed out directly, dissolved, and the solution diluted in a graduated flask to a definite volume. In this case no standardization is made, as the normal value can be calculated directly. It is, however, more generally customary to standardize a solution of the commercial salt by comparison with some substance of definite composition, as described below.

PROCEDURE.—Pulverize about 5 grams of potassium bichromate of good quality. Dissolve the bichromate in distilled water, transfer the solution to a liter bottle, and dilute to approximately 1000 cc. Shake thoroughly until the solution is uniform.

To prepare the solution of the reducing agent, pulverize about 28 grams of ferrous sulphate (FeSO_{4}.7H_{2}O) or about 40 grams of ferrous ammonium sulphate (FeSO_{4}.(NH_{4}){2}SO{4}.6H_{2}O) and dissolve in distilled water containing 5 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid. Transfer the solution to a liter bottle, add 5 cc. concentrated sulphuric acid, make up to about 1000 cc. and shake vigorously to insure uniformity.

No indicator is known which, like methyl orange, can be used within the solution, to show when the oxidation process is complete. Instead, an outside indicator solution is employed to which drops of the titrated solution are transferred for testing. The reagent used is potassium ferricyanide, which produces a blue precipitate (or color) with ferrous compounds as long as there are unoxidized ferrous ions in the titrated solution. Drops of the indicator solution are placed upon a glazed porcelain tile, or upon white cardboard which has been coated with paraffin to render it waterproof, and drops of the titrated solution are transferred to the indicator on the end of a stirring rod. When the oxidation is nearly completed only very small amounts of the ferrous compounds remain unoxidized and the reaction with the indicator is no longer instantaneous. It is necessary to allow a brief time to elapse before determining that no blue color is formed. Thirty seconds is a sufficient interval, and should be adopted throughout the analytical procedure. If left too long, the combined effect of light and dust from the air will cause a reduction of the ferric compounds already formed and a resultant blue will appear which misleads the observer with respect to the true end-point.

The indicator solution must be highly diluted, otherwise its own color interferes with accurate observation. Prepare a fresh solution, as needed each day, by dissolving a crystal of potassium ferricyanide about the size of a pin's head in 25 cc. of distilled water. The salt should be carefully tested with ferric chloride for the presence of ferrocyanides, which give a blue color with