An Elementary Study of Chemistry by William McPherson (best english books to read for beginners .txt) π
~Law of conservation of matter.~ The important truth just stated is frequently referred to as the law of conservation of matter, and this law may be briefly stated thus: Matter can neither be created nor destroyed, though it can be changed from one form into another.
~Classification of matter.~ At first sight there appears to be no limit to the varieties of matter of which the world is made. For convenience in study we may classify all these varieties under three heads, namely, mechanical mixtures, chemical compounds, and elements.
[Illustration: Fig. 1]
~Mechanical mixtures.~ If equal bulks of common salt and iron filings
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3. Pyrophosphoric acid (H4P2O7). On heating orthophosphoric acid to about 225Β° pyrophosphoric acid is formed in accordance with the following equation:
It is a white crystalline solid. Its salts can be prepared by heating a secondary phosphate:
4. Metaphosphoric acid (glacial phosphoric acid) (HPO3). This acid is formed when orthophosphoric acid is heated above 400Β°:
It is also formed when phosphorus pentoxide is treated with cold water:
It is a white crystalline solid, and is so stable towards heat that it can be fused and even volatilized without decomposition. On cooling from the fused state it forms a glassy solid, and on this account is often called glacial phosphoric acid. It possesses the property of dissolving small quantities of metallic oxides, with the formation of compounds which, in the case of certain metals, have characteristic colors. It is therefore used in the detection of these metals.
While the secondary phosphates, on heating, give salts of pyrophosphoric acid, the primary phosphates yield salts of metaphosphoric acid. The equations representing these reactions are as follows:
Fertilizers. When crops are produced year after year on the same field certain constituents of the soil essential to plant growth are removed, and the soil becomes impoverished and unproductive. To make the land once more fertile these constituents must be replaced. The calcium phosphate of the mineral deposits or of bone ash serves well as a material for restoring phosphorus to soils exhausted of that essential element; but a more soluble substance, which the plants can more readily assimilate, is desirable. It is better, therefore, to convert the insoluble calcium phosphate into the soluble primary phosphate before it is applied as fertilizer. It will be seen by reference to the formulas for the orthophosphates (see page 244) that in a primary phosphate only one hydrogen atom of phosphoric acid is replaced by a metal. Since the calcium atom always replaces two hydrogen atoms, it might be thought that there could be no primary calcium phosphate; but if the calcium atom replaces one hydrogen atom from each of two molecules of phosphoric acid, the salt Ca(H2PO4)2 will result, and this is a primary phosphate. It can be made by treatment of the normal phosphate with the necessary amount of sulphuric acid, calcium sulphate being formed at the same time, thus:
The resulting mixture is a powder, which is sold as a fertilizer under the name of "superphosphate of lime."
ARSENICOccurrence. Arsenic occurs in considerable quantities in nature as the native element, as the sulphides realgar (As2S2) and orpiment (As2S3), as oxide (As2O3), and as a constituent of many metallic sulphides, such as arsenopyrite (FeAsS).
Preparation. The element is prepared by purifying the native arsenic, or by heating the arsenopyrite in iron tubes, out of contact with air, when the reaction expressed by the following equation occurs:
The arsenic, being volatile, condenses in chambers connected with the heated tubes. It is also made from the oxide by reduction with carbon:
Properties. Arsenic is a steel-gray, metallic-looking substance of density 5.73. Though resembling metals in appearance, it is quite brittle, being easily powdered in a mortar. When strongly heated it sublimes, that is, it passes into a vapor without melting, and condenses again to a crystalline solid when the vapor is cooled. Like phosphorus it can be obtained in several allotropic forms. It alloys readily with some of the metals, and finds its chief use as an alloy with lead, which is used for making shot, the alloy being harder than pure lead. When heated on charcoal with the blowpipe it is converted into an oxide which volatilizes, leaving the charcoal unstained by any oxide coating. It burns readily in chlorine gas, forming arsenic trichloride,β
Unlike most of its compounds, the element itself is not poisonous.
Arsine (AsH3). When any compound containing arsenic is brought into the presence of nascent hydrogen, arsine (AsH3), corresponding to phosphine and ammonia, is formed. The reaction when oxide of arsenic is so treated is
Arsine is a gas with a peculiar garlic-like odor, and is intensely poisonous. A single bubble of pure gas has been known to prove fatal. It is an unstable compound, decomposing into its elements when heated to a moderate temperature. It is combustible, burning with a pale bluish-white flame to form arsenic trioxide and water when air is in excess:
When the supply of air is deficient water and metallic arsenic are formed:
These reactions make the detection of even minute quantities of arsenic a very easy problem.
Marsh's test for arsenic. The method devised by Marsh for detecting arsenic is most frequently used, the apparatus being shown in Fig. 72. Hydrogen is generated in the flask A by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on zinc, is dried by passing over calcium chloride in the tube B, and after passing through the hard-glass tube C is ignited at the jet D. If a substance containing arsenic is now introduced into the generator A, the arsenic is converted into arsine by the action of the nascent hydrogen, and passes to the jet along with the hydrogen. If the tube C is strongly heated at some point near the middle, the arsine is decomposed while passing this point and the arsenic is deposited just beyond the heated point in the form of a shining, brownish-black mirror. If the tube is not heated, the arsine burns along with the hydrogen at the jet. Under these conditions a small porcelain dish crowded down into the flame is blackened by a spot of metallic arsenic, for the arsine is decomposed by the heat of the flame, and the arsenic, cooled below its kindling temperature by the cold porcelain, deposits upon it as a black spot. Antimony conducts itself in the same way as arsenic, but the antimony deposit is more sooty in appearance. The two can also be distinguished by the fact that sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) dissolves the arsenic deposit, but not that formed by antimony.
Oxides of arsenic. Arsenic forms two oxides, As2O3 and As2O5, corresponding to those of phosphorus. Of these arsenious oxide, or arsenic trioxide (As2O3), is much better known, and is the substance usually called white arsenic, or merely arsenic. It is found as a mineral, but is usually obtained as a by-product in burning pyrite in the sulphuric-acid industry. The pyrite has a small amount of arsenopyrite in it, and when this is burned arsenious oxide is formed as a vapor together with sulphur dioxide:
The arsenious oxide is condensed in appropriate chambers. It is a rather heavy substance, obtained either as a crystalline powder or as large, vitreous lumps, resembling lumps of porcelain in appearance. It is very poisonous, from 0.2 to 0.3 g. being a fatal dose. It is frequently given as a poison, since it is nearly tasteless and does not act very rapidly. This slow action is due to the fact that it is not very soluble, and hence is absorbed slowly by the system. Arsenious oxide is also used as a chemical reagent in glass making and in the dye industry.
Acids of arsenic. Like the corresponding oxides of phosphorus, the oxides of arsenic are acid anhydrides. In solution they combine with bases to form salts, corresponding to the salts of the acids of phosphorus. Thus we have salts of the following acids:
Several other acids of arsenic are also known. Not all of these can be obtained as free acids, since they tend to lose water and form the oxides. Thus, instead of obtaining arsenious acid (H3AsO3), the oxide As2O3 is obtained:
Salts of all the acids are known, however, and some of them have commercial value. Most of them are insoluble, and some of the copper salts, which are green, are used as pigments. Paris green, which has a complicated formula, is a well-known insecticide.
Antidote for arsenical poisoning. The most efficient antidote for arsenic poisoning is ferric hydroxide. It is prepared as needed, according to the equation
Sulphides of arsenic. When hydrogen sulphide is passed into an acidified solution containing an arsenic compound the arsenic is precipitated as a bright yellow sulphide, thus:
In this respect arsenic resembles the metallic elements, many of which produce sulphides under similar conditions. The sulphides of arsenic, both those produced artificially and those found in nature, are used as yellow pigments.
ANTIMONYOccurrence. Antimony occurs in nature chiefly as the sulphide (Sb2S3), called stibnite, though it is also found as oxide and as a constituent of many complex minerals.
Preparation. Antimony is prepared from the sulphide in a very simple manner. The sulphide is melted with scrap iron in a furnace, when the iron combines with the sulphur to form a slag, or liquid layer of melted iron sulphide, while the heavier liquid, antimony, settles to the bottom and is drawn off from time to time. The reaction involved is represented by the equation
Physical properties. Antimony is a bluish-white, metallic-looking substance whose density is 6.7. It is highly crystalline, hard, and very brittle. It has a rather low melting point (432Β°) and expands very noticeably on solidifying.
Chemical properties. In chemical properties antimony resembles arsenic in many particulars. It forms the oxides Sb2O3 and Sb2O5, and in addition Sb2O4. It combines with the halogen elements with great energy, burning brilliantly in chlorine to form antimony trichloride (SbCl3). When heated on charcoal with the blowpipe it is oxidized and forms a coating of antimony oxide on the charcoal which has a characteristic bluish-white color.
Stibine (SbH3). The gas stibine (SbH3) is formed under conditions which are very similar to those which produce arsine, and it closely resembles the latter compound, though it is still less stable. It is very poisonous.
Acids of antimony. The oxides Sb_{2}O_{3} and Sb_{2}O_{5} are weak acid anhydrides and are capable of forming two series of acids corresponding in formulas to the acids of phosphorus and arsenic. They are much weaker, however, and are of little practical importance.
Sulphides of antimony. Antimony resembles arsenic in that hydrogen sulphide precipitates it as a sulphide when conducted into an acidified solution containing an antimony compound:
The two sulphides of antimony are called the trisulphide and the pentasulphide respectively. When prepared in this way they are orange-colored substances, though the mineral stibnite is black.
Metallic properties of antimony. The physical properties of the element are those of a metal, and the fact that its sulphide is precipitated by hydrogen sulphide shows that it acts like a metal in a chemical way. Many other reactions show that antimony has more of the properties of a metal than of a non-metal. The compound Sb(OH)3, corresponding to arsenious acid, while able to act as a weak acid is also able to act as a weak base with strong acids. For example, when treated
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