A Treatise on Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene (Revised Edition) by Calvin Cutter (read more books .txt) 📕
13. One of the most important distinctions between animals and plants, is the different effects of respiration. Animals consume the oxygen of the atmosphere, and give off carbonic acid; while plants take up the carbonic acid, and restore to animals the oxygen, thus affording an admirable example of the principle of compensation in nature.
14. But the decisive distinctions between animals and plants are
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47. Magnesia (magnesium combined with oxygen) exists in the bones, brain, and in some of the animal fluids; as milk.
48. Silex (silicium combined with oxygen) is contained in the hair and in some of the secretions.
49. Iron forms the coloring principle of the red globules of the blood, and is found in every part of the system.
Observation. As metallic or mineral substances enter into the ultimate elements of the body, the assertion that all minerals are poisonous, however small the quantity, is untrue.
42. What is an ultimate element? Give examples. 43. How are they divided? Name the metallic substances. Name the non-metallic substances. 44. What is said of potash? 45. Of soda? 46. Of lime? 47. Of magnesia? 48. Of silex? 49. What forms the coloring principle of the blood? What is said of mineral substances?
2650. Oxygen is contained in all the fluids and solids of the body. It is almost entirely derived from the inspired air and water. It is expelled in the form of carbonic acid and water from the lungs and skin. It is likewise removed in the other secretions.
51. Hydrogen is found in all the fluids and in all the solids of the body. It is derived from the food, as well as from water and other drinks. It exists in the greatest abundance in the impure, dark-colored blood of the system. It is removed by the agency of the kidneys, skin, lungs, and other excretory organs.
52. Carbon is an element in the oil, fat, albumen, fibrin, gelatin, bile, and mucus. This element likewise exists in the impure blood in the form of carbonic acid gas. Carbon is obtained from the food, and discharged from the system by the secretions and respiration.
53. Nitrogen is contained in most animal matter, but is most abundant in fibrin. It is not contained in fat and a few other substances.
Observation. The peculiar smell of animal matter when burning is owing to nitrogen. This element combined with hydrogen forms am-mo´ni-a, (hartshorn,) when animal matter is in a state of putrefaction.
54. Phosphorus is contained in many parts of the system, but more particularly in the bones. It is generally found in combination with oxygen, forming phosphoric acid. The phosphoric acid is usually combined with alkaline bases; as lime in the bones, forming phosphate of lime.
55. Sulphur exists in the bones, muscles, hair, and nails. It is expelled from the system by the skin and intestines.
56. Chlorine is found in the blood, gastric juice, milk, perspiration, and saliva.
50. What is said of oxygen? 51. Of hydrogen? 52. What is said of carbon? 53. Of nitrogen? How is ammonia formed? 54. What is said of phosphorus? 55. What is said of sulphur? 56. Of chlorine?
2757. Proximate elements are forms of matter that exist in organized bodies in abundance, and are composed chiefly of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, arranged in different proportions. They exist already formed, and may be separated in many instances, by heat or mechanical means. The most important compounds are Al-bu´men, Fi´brin, Gel´a-tin, Mu´cus, Fat, Ca´se-ine, Chon´drine, Lac´tic acid, and Os´ma-zome.
58. Albumen is found in the body, both in a fluid and solid form. It is an element of the skin, glands, hair, and nails, and forms the principal ingredient of the brain. Albumen is without color, taste, or smell, and it coagulates by heat, acids, and alcohol.
Observation. The white of an egg is composed of albumen, which can be coagulated or hardened by alcohol. As albumen enters so largely into the composition of the brain, is not the impaired intellect and moral degradation of the inebriate attributable to the effect of alcohol in hardening the albumen of this organ?
59. Fibrin exists abundantly in the blood, chyle, and lymph. It constitutes the basis of the muscles. Fibrin is of a whitish color, inodorous, and insoluble in cold water. It differs from albumen by possessing the property of coagulating at all temperatures.
Observation. Fibrin may be obtained by washing the thick part of blood with cold water; by this process, the red globules, or coloring matter, are separated from this element.
60. Gelatin is found in nearly all the solids, but it is not known to exist in any of the fluids. It forms the basis of the cellular tissue, and exists largely in the skin, bones, ligaments, and cartilages.
57. What are proximate elements? Do they exist already formed in organized bodies? Name the most important compounds. 58. What is said of albumen? Give observation relative to this element. 59. Of fibrin? How does albumen differ from fibrin? How can fibrin be obtained? 60. What is said of gelatin?
28Observation. Gelatin is known from other organic principles by its dissolving in warm water, and forming “jelly.” When dry, it forms the hard, brittle substance, called glue. Isinglass, which is used in the various mechanical arts, is obtained from the sounds of the sturgeon.
61. Mucus is a viscid fluid secreted by the gland-cells, or epithelia. Various substances are included under the name of mucus. It is generally alkaline, but its true chemical character is imperfectly understood. It serves to moisten and defend the mucous membrane. It is found in the cuticle, brain, and nails; and is scarcely soluble in water, especially when dry. (Appendix C.)
62. Osmazome is a substance of an aromatic flavor. It is of a yellowish-brown color, and is soluble both in water and alcohol, but does not form a jelly by concentration. It is found in all the fluids, and in some of the solids; as the brain.
Observation. The characteristic odor and taste of soup are owing to osmazome.
63. There are several acids found in the human system; as the A-ce´tic, Ben-zo´ic, Ox-al´ic, U´ric, and some other substances, but not of sufficient importance to require a particular description.
How is it known from other organic principles? 61. What is said of mucus? 62. Of osmazome? To what are the taste and odor of soup owing? 63. What acids are found in the system?
64. The bones are firm and hard, and of a dull white color. In all the higher orders of animals, among which is man, they are in the interior of the body, while in lobsters, crabs, &c., they are on the outside, forming a case which protects the more delicate parts from injury.
65. In the mechanism of man, the variety of movements he is called to perform requires a correspondent variety of component parts, and the different bones of the system are so admirably adapted to each other, that they admit of numerous and varied motions.
66. When the bones composing the skeleton are united by natural ligaments, they form what is called a natural skeleton, when united by wires, what is termed an artificial skeleton.
67. The elevations, or protuberances, of the bones are called proc´es-ses, and are, generally, the points of attachment for the muscles and ligaments.
68. The BONES are composed of both animal and earthy matter. The earthy portion of the bones gives them solidity and strength, while the animal part endows them with vitality.
64. What is said of the bones? 65. Is there an adaptation of the bones of the system to the offices they are required to perform? 66. What is a natural skeleton? What an artificial? 67. What part of the bones are called processes? 68–73. Give the structure of the bones. 68. Of what are the bones composed? What are the different uses of the component parts of the bones?
30Experiments. 1st. To show the earthy without the animal matter, burn a bone in a clear fire for about fifteen minutes, and it becomes white and brittle, because the gelatin, or animal matter of the bone, has been destroyed.
2d. To show the animal without the earthy matter of the bones, immerse a slender bone for a few days in a weak acid, (one part muriatic acid and six parts water,) and it can then be bent in any direction. In this experiment, the acid has removed the earthy matter, (carbonate and phosphate of lime,) yet the form of the bone is unchanged.
69. The bones are formed from the blood, and are subjected to several changes before they are perfected. At their early formative stage, they are cartilaginous. The vessels of the cartilage, at this period, convey only the lymph, or white portion of the blood; subsequently, they convey red blood. At this time, true ossification (the deposition of phosphate and carbonate of lime) commences at certain points, which are called the points of ossification.
70. Most of the bones are formed of several pieces, or centres of ossification. This is seen in the long bones which have their extremities separated from the body by a thin partition of cartilage. It is some time before these separate pieces are united to form one bone.
71. When the process of ossification is completed, there is still a constant change in the bones. They increase in bulk, and become less vascular, until middle age. In advanced life, the elevations upon their surface and near the extremities become more prominent, particularly in individuals accustomed to labor. As a person advances in years, the vitality diminishes, and in extreme old age, the earthy 31 substance predominates; consequently, the bones are extremely brittle.
How can the earthy matter of the bones be shown? The animal? 69. What is the appearance of the bones in their early formative stage? When does true ossification commence? 70. How are most of the bones formed? 71. What is said of the various changes of the bones after ossification?
72. The fibrous membrane that invests the bones is called per-i-os´te-um; that which covers the cartilages is called per-i-chon´dri-um. When this membrane invests the skull, it is called per-i-cra´ni-um.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. A section of the knee-joint. The lower part of the femur, (thigh-bone,) and upper part of the tibia, (leg-bone,) are seen ossified at 1, 1. The cartilaginous extremities of the two bones are seen at d, d. The points of ossification of the extremities, are seen at 2, 2. The patella, or knee-pan, is seen at c. 3, A point, or centre of ossification.
73. The PERIOSTEUM is a firm membrane immediately investing the bones, except where they are tipped with cartilage, and the crowns of the teeth, which are protected by enamel. This membrane has minute nerves, and when healthy, possesses 32 but little sensibility. It is the nutrient membrane of the bone, endowing its exterior with vitality; it also gives insertion to the tendons and connecting ligaments of the joints.
72. What is the membrane called that invests the bones? That covers the cartilage? That invests the skull? Explain fig. 6. 73. Describe the periosteum.
74. There are two hundred and eight[3] bones in the human body, beside the teeth. These, for convenience, are divided into four parts: 1st. The bones of the Head. 2d. The bones of the Trunk. 3d. The bones of the Upper Extremities. 4th. The bones of the Lower Extremities.
75. The bones of the HEAD are divided into those of the Skull, Ear, and Face.
76. The SKULL is composed of eight bones. They are formed of two plates, or tablets of bony matter, united by a porous portion of bone. The external tablet is fibrous and tough; the internal plate is dense and hard, and is called the vit´re-ous, or glassy table. These tough, hard plates are adapted to resist the penetration of sharp instruments, while the different degrees of density possessed by the two tablets, and the intervening spongy bone, serve to diminish the vibrations that would occur in falls
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