A Treatise on Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene (Revised Edition) by Calvin Cutter (read more books .txt) ๐
13. One of the most important distinctions between animals and plants, is the different effects of respiration. Animals consume the oxygen of the atmosphere, and give off carbonic acid; while plants take up the carbonic acid, and restore to animals the oxygen, thus affording an admirable example of the principle of compensation in nature.
14. But the decisive distinctions between animals and plants are
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Fig. 14.
Fig. 14. 1, The body of the ulna. 2, The shaft of the radius. 3, The upper articulation of the radius and ulna. 4, Articulating cavity, in which the lower extremity of the humerus is placed. 5, Upper extremity of the ulna, called the olecranon process, which forms the point of the elbow. 6, Space between the radius and ulna, filled by the intervening ligament. 7, Styloid process of the ulna. 8, Surface of the radius and the ulna, where they articulate with the bones of the wrist. 9, Styloid process of the radius.
100. The ULNA articulates with the humerus at the elbow, and forms a perfect hinge-joint. This bone is situated on the inner side of the fore-arm.
What is represented by fig. 13? By fig. 14? 100. Describe the ulna.
41101. The RADIUS articulates with the bones of the carpus and forms the wrist-joint. This bone is situated on the outside of the fore-arm, (the side on which the thumb is placed.) The ulna and radius, at their extremities, articulate with each other, by which union the hand is made to rotate, permitting its complicated and varied movements.
102. The CARPUS is composed of eight bones, ranged in two rows, and so firmly bound together, as to permit only a small amount of movement.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 15. U, The ulna. R, The radius. S, The scaphoid bone. L, The semilunar bone. C, The cuneiform bone. P, The pisiform bone. These four form the first row of carpal bones. T, T, The trapezium and trapezoid bones. M, The os magnum. U, The unciform bone. These four form the second row of carpal bones. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, The metacarpal bones of the thumb and fingers.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 16. 10, 10, 10, The metacarpal bones of the hand. 11, 11, First range of finger-bones. 12, 12, Second range of finger-bones. 13, 13, Third range of finger-bones. 14, 15, Bones of the thumb.
103. The METACARPUS is composed of five bones, upon four of which the first range of the finger-bones is placed; and 42 upon the other, the first bone of the thumb. The five metacarpal bones articulate with the second range of carpal bones.
101. The radius. 102. How many bones in the carpus? How are they ranged? 103. Describe the metacarpus.
104. The PHALANGES of the fingers have three ranges of bones, while the thumb has but two.
Observation. The wonderful adaptation of the hand to all the mechanical offices of life, is one cause of manโs superiority over the rest of creation. This arises from the size and strength of the thumbs, and the different lengths of the fingers.
105. The LOWER EXTREMITIES contain sixty bonesโthe Feยดmur, (thigh-bone;) the Pa-telยดla, (knee-pan;) the Tibยดi-a, (shin-bone;) the Fibยดu-la, (small bone of the leg;) the Tarยดsus, (instep;) the Met-a-tarยดsus, (middle of the foot;) and the Pha-lanยดges, (toes.)
106. The FEMUR is the longest bone in the system. It supports the weight of the head, trunk, and upper extremities. The large, round head of this bone is placed in the acetabulum. This articulation is a perfect specimen of the ball and socket joint.
107. The PATELLA is a small bone connected with the tibia by a strong ligament. The tendon of the ex-tensยดor muscles of the leg is attached to its upper edge. This bone is placed on the anterior part of the lower extremity of the femur, and acts like a pulley, in the extension of the limb.
108. The TIBIA is the largest bone of the leg. It is of a triangular shape, and enlarged at each extremity.
109. The FIBULA is a smaller bone than the tibia, but of similar shape. It is firmly bound to the tibia, at each extremity.
110. The TARSUS is formed of seven irregular bones, which are so firmly bound together as to permit but little movement.
104. How many ranges of bones have the phalanges? 105โ112. Give the anatomy of the bones of the lower extremities. 105. How many bones in the lower extremities? Name them. 106. Describe the femur. 107. Describe the patella. What is its function? 108. What is the largest bone of the leg called? What is its form? 109. What is said of the fibula? 110. Describe the tarsus.
Fig. 17.
Fig. 17. 1, The shaft of the femur, (thigh-bone.) 2, A projection, called the trochantar minor, to which are attached some strong muscles. 4, The trochantar major, to which the large muscles of the hip are attached. 3, The head of the femur. 5, The external projection of the femur, called the external condyle. 6, The internal projection, called the internal condyle. 7, The surface of the lower extremity of the femur, that articulates with the tibia, and upon which the patella slides.
Fig. 18.
Fig. 18. 1, The tibia. 5, The fibula. 8, The space between the two, filled with the inter-osseous ligament. 6, The junction of the tibia and fibula at their upper extremity. 2, The external malleolar process, called the external ankle. 3, The internal malleolar process, called the internal ankle. 4, The surface of the lower extremity of the tibia, that unites with one of the tarsal bones to form the ankle-joint. 7, The upper extremity of the tibia, upon which the lower extremity of the femur rests.
Explain fig. 17. Explain fig. 18.
44111. The METATARSAL bones are five in number. They articulate at one extremity with one range of tarsal bones; at the other extremity, with the first range of the toe-bones.
Fig. 19.
Fig. 19. A representation of the upper surface of the bones of the foot. 1, The surface of the astragulus, where it unites with the tibia. 2, The body of the astragulus. 3, The calcis, (heel-bone.) 4, The scaphoid bone. 5, 6, 7, The cuneiform bones. 8, The cuboid. 9, 9, 9, The metatarsal bones. 10, The first bone of the great toe. 11, The second bone. 12, 13, 14, Three ranges of bones, forming the small toes
Fig. 20.
Fig. 20. A side view of the bones of the foot, showing its arched form. The arch rests upon the heel behind, and the ball of the toes in front. 1, The lower part of the tibia. 2, 3, 4, 5, Bones of the tarsus. 6, The metatarsal bone. 7, 8, The bones of the great toe. These bones are so united as to secure a great degree of elasticity, or spring.
Observation. The tarsal and metatarsal bones are united so as to give the foot an arched form, convex above, and concave 45 below. This structure conduces to the elasticity of the step, and the weight of the body is transmitted to the ground by the spring of the arch, in a manner which prevents injury to the numerous organs.
111. Describe the metatarsal bones. Explain fig. 19. What is represented by fig. 20? What is said of the arrangement of the bones of the foot?
112. The PHALANGES (fig. 19) are composed of fourteen bones; each of the small toes has three ranges of bones, while the great toe has but two.
113. The JOINTS form an interesting part of the body. In their construction, every thing shows the regard that has been paid to the security and the facility of motion of the parts thus connected together. They are composed of the extremities of two or more bones, Carยดti-lages, (gristles,) Syn-oยดvi-al membrane, and Ligยดa-ments.
Fig. 21.
Fig. 21 The relative position of the bones, cartilages, and synovial membrane. 1, 1, The extremities of two bones that concur to form a joint. 2, 2, The cartilages that cover the end of the bones. 3, 3, 3, 3, The synovial membrane which covers the cartilage of both bones, and is then doubled back from one to the other; it is represented by the dotted lines.
Fig. 22.
Fig. 22. A vertical section of the knee-joint. 1, The femur. 3, The patella. 5, The tibia. 2, 4, The ligaments of the patella. 6, The cartilage of the tibia 12, The cartilage of the femur. * * * *, The synovial membrane.
114. Cartilage is a smooth, solid, elastic substance, of a pearly whiteness, softer than bone. It forms upon the articular 46 surfaces of the bones a thin incrustation, not more than the sixteenth of an inch in thickness. Upon convex surfaces it is the thickest in the centre, and thin toward the circumference; while upon concave surfaces, an opposite arrangement is presented.
112. Describe the phalanges. 113โ118. Give the anatomy of the joints. 113. What is said of the joints? Of what are the joints composed? What is illustrated by fig. 21? By fig. 22? 114. Define cartilage.
115. The SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE is a thin, membranous layer, which covers the cartilages, and is thence bent back, or reflected upon the inner surfaces of the ligaments which surround and enter into the composition of the joints. This membrane forms a closed sac, like the membrane that lines an egg-shell.
Fig. 23.
Fig. 23. The anterior ligaments of the knee-joint. 1, The tendon of the muscle that extends the leg. 2, The patella. 3, The anterior ligament of the patella, near its insertion. 4, 4, The synovial membrane. 5, The internal lateral ligament. 6, The long external lateral ligament. 7, The anterior and superior ligament that unites the fibula to the tibia.
Fig. 24.
Fig. 24. 2, 3, The ligaments that extend from the clavicle (1) to the scapula (4.) The ligaments 5, 6, extend from the scapula to the first bone of the arm.
116. Beside the synovial membrane, there are numerous smaller sacs, called burยดsรฆ mu-coยดsรฆ. These are often associated with the articulation. In structure, they are analogous to synovial membranes, and secrete a similar fluid.
115. Describe the synovial membrane. 116. Describe the bursรฆ mucosรฆ. What is represented by fig. 23? By fig. 24?
47117. The LIGAMENTS are composed of numerous straight fibres, collected together, and arranged into short bands of various breadths, or so interwoven as to form a broad layer, which completely surrounds the articular extremities of the bones, and constitutes a capsular ligament. These connecting bands are white, glistening, and inelastic. Most of the ligaments are found exterior to the synovial membrane.
118. The bones, cartilages, ligaments, and synovial membrane are insensible when in health; yet they are supplied with organic nerves, as well as with arteries, veins, and lymphatics.
Observation. The joints of the domestic animals are similar in their construction to those of man. To illustrate this part of the body, a fresh joint of the calf or sheep may be used. After divesting the joints of the skin, the satin-like bands, or ligaments, will be seen passing from one bone to the other, under which may be observed the membranous bag, called the capsular ligament. This is very smooth, as it is lined with the soft synovial membrane, beneath which will be seen the cartilage, that may be cut with a knife, and under this the rough extremity of the ends of the bones.
117. Of what are ligaments composed? What is the appearance of these bands? Where are they found? 118.
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