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Title: A History of China

Author: Wolfram Eberhard

Release Date: February 28, 2004 [EBook #11367]

Language: English

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[Transcriber's Note: The following text contains numerous non-English words containing diacritical marks not contained in the ASCII character set. Characters accented by those marks, and the corresponding text representations are as follows (where x represents the character being accented). All such symbols in this text above the character being accented:

breve (u-shaped symbol): [)x] caron (v-shaped symbol): [vx] macron (straight line): [=x] acute (égu) accent: ['x]

Additionally, the author has spelled certain words inconsistently. Those have been adjusted to be consistent where possible. Examples of such adjustments are as follows:

From To Northwestern North-western Southwards Southward Programme Program re-introduced reintroduced practise practice Lotos Lotus Ju-Chên Juchên cooperate co-operate life-time lifetime man-power manpower favor favour etc.

In general such changes are made to be consistent with the predominate usage in the text, or if there was not a predominate spelling, to the more modern.]

A HISTORY OF CHINA

by

WOLFRAM EBERHARD CONTENTS INTRODUCTION THE EARLIEST TIMES Chapter I: PREHISTORY

1 Sources for the earliest history 2 The Peking Man 3 The Palaeolithic Age 4 The Neolithic Age 5 The eight principal prehistoric cultures 6 The Yang-shao culture 7 The Lung-shan culture 8 The first petty States in Shansi

Chapter II: THE SHANG DYNASTY (c. 1600-1028 B.C.)

1 Period, origin, material culture 2 Writing and Religion 3 Transition to feudalism

ANTIQUITY Chapter III: THE CHOU DYNASTY (c. 1028-257 B.C.)

  1 Cultural origin of the Chou and end of the Shang dynasty
  2 Feudalism in the new empire
  3 Fusion of Chou and Shang
  4 Limitation of the imperial power
  5 Changes in the relative strength of the feudal states
  6 Confucius
  7 Lao Tz[)u]

Chapter IV: THE CONTENDING STATES (481-256 B.C.): DISSOLUTION OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM

  1 Social and military changes
  2 Economic changes
  3 Cultural changes

Chapter V: THE CH'IN DYNASTY (256-207 B.C.)

1 Towards the unitary State 2 Centralization in every field 3 Frontier Defence. Internal collapse

THE MIDDLE AGES Chapter VI: THE HAN DYNASTY (206 B.C.-A.D. 220)

  1 Development of the gentry-state
  2 Situation of the Hsiung-nu empire; its relation to the
    Han empire. Incorporation of South China
  3 Brief feudal reaction. Consolidation of the gentry
  4 Turkestan policy. End of the Hsiung-nu empire
  5 Impoverishment. Cliques. End of the Dynasty
  6 The pseudo-socialistic dictatorship. Revolt of the "Red Eyebrows"
  7 Reaction and Restoration: the Later Han dynasty
  8 Hsiung-nu policy
  9 Economic situation. Rebellion of the "Yellow Turbans".
    Collapse of the Han dynasty
 10 Literature and Art

Chapter VII: THE EPOCH OF THE FIRST DIVISION OF CHINA (A.D. 220-580)

    (A) The three kingdoms (A.D. 220-265)
  1 Social, intellectual, and economic problems during the
    period of the first division
  2 Status of the two southern Kingdoms
  3 The northern State of Wei

(B) The Western Chin dynasty (265-317) 1 Internal situation in the Chin empire 2 Effect on the frontier peoples 3 Struggles for the throne 4 Migration of Chinese 5 Victory of the Huns. The Hun Han dynasty (later renamed the Earlier Chao dynasty)

    (C) The alien empires in North China, down to the Toba
       (A.D. 317-385)
  1 The Later Chao dynasty in eastern North China (Hun; 329-352)
  2 Earlier Yen dynasty in the north-east (proto-Mongol; 352-370),
    and the Earlier Ch'in dynasty in all north China (Tibetan; 351-394)
  3 The fragmentation of north China
  4 Sociological analysis of the two great alien empires
  5 Sociological analysis of the petty States
  6 Spread of Buddhism

(D) The Toba empire in North China (A.D. 385-550) 1 The rise of the Toba State 2 The Hun kingdom of the Hsia (407-431) 3 Rise of the Toba to a great power 4 Economic and social conditions 5 Victory and retreat of Buddhism

    (E) Succession States of the Toba (A.D. 550-580):
      Northern Ch'i dynasty, Northern Chou dynasty
  1 Reasons for the splitting of the Toba empire
  2 Appearance of the (Gök) Turks
  3 The Northern Ch'i dynasty; the Northern Chou dynasty

    (F) The southern empires
  1 Economic and social situation in the south
  2 Struggles between cliques under the Eastern Chin dynasty
    (A.D. 317-419)
  3 The Liu-Sung dynasty (A.D. 420-478) and the Southern Ch'i dynasty
    (A.D. 479-501)
  4 The Liang dynasty (A.D. 502-556)
  5 The Ch'en dynasty (A.D. 557-588) and its ending by the Sui
  6 Cultural achievements of the south

Chapter VIII: THE EMPIRES OF THE SUI AND THE T'ANG

(A) The Sui dynasty (A.D. 580-618) 1 Internal situation in the newly unified empire 2 Relations with Turks and with Korea 3 Reasons for collapse

    (B) The T'ang dynasty (A.D. 618-906)
  1 Reforms and decentralization
  2 Turkish policy
  3 Conquest of Turkestan and Korea. Summit of power
  4 The reign of the empress Wu: Buddhism and capitalism
  5 Second blossoming of T'ang culture
  6 Revolt of a military governor
  7 The role of the Uighurs. Confiscation of the capital of the
    monasteries
  8 First successful peasant revolt. Collapse of the empire

MODERN TIMES Chapter IX: THE EPOCH OF THE SECOND DIVISION OF CHINA

    (A) The period of the Five Dynasties (906-960)
  1 Beginning of a new epoch
  2 Political situation in the tenth century
  3 Monopolistic trade in South China. Printing and paper money in the
    north
  4 Political history of the Five Dynasties

(B) Period of Moderate Absolutism (1) The Northern Sung dynasty 1 Southward expansion 2 Administration and army. Inflation 3 Reforms and Welfare schemes 4 Cultural situation (philosophy, religion, literature, painting) 5 Military collapse

(2) The Liao (Kitan) dynasty in the north (937-1125) 1 Sociological structure. Claim to the Chinese imperial throne 2 The State of the Kara-Kitai

(3) The Hsi-Hsia State in the north (1038-1227) 1 Continuation of Turkish traditions

    (4) The empire of the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1279)
  1 Foundation
  2 Internal situation
  3 Cultural situation; reasons for the collapse

    (5) The empire of the Juchên in the north (i 115-1234)
  1 Rapid expansion from northern Korea to the Yangtze
  2 United front of all Chinese
  3 Start of the Mongol empire

Chapter X: THE PERIOD OF ABSOLUTISM

(A) The Mongol Epoch (1280-1368) 1 Beginning of new foreign rules 2 "Nationality legislation" 3 Military position 4 Social situation 5 Popular risings: National rising 6 Cultural

    (B) The Ming Epoch (1368-1644)
  1 Start. National feeling
  2 Wars against Mongols and Japanese
  3 Social legislation within the existing order
  4 Colonization and agricultural developments
  5 Commercial and industrial developments
  6 Growth of the small gentry
  7 Literature, art, crafts
  8 Politics at court
  9 Navy. Southward expansion
 10 Struggles between cliques
 11 Risings
 12 Machiavellism
 13 Foreign relations in the sixteenth century
 14 External and internal perils

    (C) The Manchu Dynasty (1644-1911)
  1 Installation of the Manchus
  2 Decline in the eighteenth century
  3 Expansion in Central Asia; the first State treaty
  4 Culture
  5 Relations with the outer world
  6 Decline; revolts
  7 European Imperialism in the Far East
  8 Risings in Turkestan and within China: the T'ai P'ing Rebellion
  9 Collision with Japan; further Capitulations
 10 Russia in Manchuria
 11 Reform and reaction: The Boxer Rising
 12 End of the dynasty

Chapter XI: THE REPUBLIC (1912-1948)

1 Social and intellectual position 2 First period of the Republic: The warlords 3 Second period of the Republic: Nationalist China 4 The Sino-Japanese war (1937-1945)

Chapter XII: PRESENT-DAY CHINA

1 The growth of communism 2 Nationalist China in Taiwan 3 Communist China

Notes and References

Index

ILLUSTRATIONS

1 Painted pottery from Kansu: Neolithic. In the collection of the Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.

2 Ancient bronze tripod found at Anyang. From G. Ecke: Frühe chinesische Bronzen aus der Sammlung Oskar Trautmann, Peking 1939, plate 3.

3 Bronze plaque representing two horses fighting each other. Ordos
  region, animal style.
  From V. Griessmaier: Sammlung Baron Eduard von der Heydt,
  Vienna 1936, illustration No. 6.

4 Hunting scene: detail from the reliefs in the tombs at Wu-liang-tz'u.
  From a print in the author's possession.

5 Part of the "Great Wall".
  Photo Eberhard.

6 Sun Ch'üan, ruler of Wu.
  From a painting by Yen Li-pen (c. 640-680).

7 General view of the Buddhist cave-temples of Yün-kang. In the foreground, the present village; in the background the rampart. Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

8 Detail from the Buddhist cave-reliefs of Lung-men. From a print in the author's possession.

9 Statue of Mi-lo (Maitreya, the next future Buddha), in the "Great Buddha Temple" at Chengting (Hopei). Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

10 Ladies of the Court: Clay models which accompanied the dead person to the grave. T'ang period. In the collection of the Museum für Völkerkunde. Berlin.

11 Distinguished founder: a temple banner found at Khotcho, Turkestan. Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. No. 1B 4524, illustration B 408.

12 Ancient tiled pagoda at Chengting (Hopei).
   Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

13 Horse-training. Painting by Li Lung-mien. Late Sung period.
   Manchu Royal House Collection.

14 Aborigines of South China, of the "Black Miao" tribe, at a festival.
   China-ink drawing of the eighteenth century.
   Collection of the Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. No. 1D 8756, 68.

15 Pavilion on the "Coal Hill" at Peking, in which the last Ming emperor
   committed suicide.
   Photo Eberhard.

16 The imperial summer palace of the Manchu rulers, at Jehol.
   Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

17 Tower on the city wall of Peking.
   Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

MAPS

1 Regions of the principal local cultures in prehistoric times

2 The principal feudal States in the feudal epoch (roughly 722-481 B.C.)

3 China in the struggle with the Huns or Hsiung-nu (roughly 128-100 B.C.)

4 The Toba empire (about A.D. 500)

5 The T'ang realm