The History Of Education by Ellwood P. Cubberley (little red riding hood read aloud .txt) đź“•
The civilization which we now know and enjoy has come down to us from four main sources. The Greeks, the Romans, and the Christians laid the foundations, and in the order named, and the study of the early history of our western civilization is a study of the work and the blending of these three main forces. It is upon these three foundation stones, superimposed upon one another, that our modern European and American civilization has been developed.
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[Illustration: FIG. 180 COUNT OF CAVOUR (1810-61)]
This Law of 1859 was later extended to cover all Italy, and has formed the basis for all subsequent legislation. It clearly established a state system of education, though the religious schools were allowed to remain.
It also established control after the French plan, with a high degree of centralization and uniformity. The schools established, too, were much after the French type, though much less extensive in scope. The primary and superior primary at first were but two years each, though since extended in all the larger communities to a six-year combined course. The two-class school system was established, as in France and German lands.
The secondary-school system consisted of a five-year ginnasio, established in many places (218 in Italy by 1865; 458 by 1916) with a three-year liceo following, but found in a smaller number of places.
Parallel with this a seven-year non-classical scientific and technical secondary school was also created, and these institutions have made marked headway (461 by 1916) in central and northern Italy. Pupils may pass to either of these on the completion of the ordinary four-year primary course, at the age of ten. Above the secondary schools are numerous universities. The normal-school system created prepared for teaching in the primary schools, while the university system followed the completion of the liceo course. [Illustration: FIG. 181. OUTLINE OF THE MAIN
FEATURES OF THE ITALIAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM]
The influence of French ideas in Italian educational organization is clearly evident. Before the French armies brought French governmental ideas and organization to Italy almost nothing had been done. Then, during the first six decades of the nineteenth century, the transition from the church-school idea to the conception of education as an important function of the State was made, and the resulting system is largely French in organization and form.
SUBSEQUENT PROGRESS. From this point on educational progress has been chiefly a problem of increased finances and the slow but gradual extension of educational opportunities to more and more of the children of the people. The church schools have been allowed to continue side by side with the state schools, and the problem of securing satisfactory working relations has not always been easy of solution.
In 1877 primary education was ordered made compulsory, [21] and religious instruction was dropped from the state schools, but the slow progress of the nation in extending literacy indicates that but little had been accomplished in enforcing the compulsion previous to the new compulsory law of 1904. This made more stringent provisions regarding schooling, and provided for three thousand evening and Sunday schools for illiterate adults. In 1906, an earnest effort was begun to extend educational advantages in the southern provinces, where illiteracy has always been highest. In 1911, the state aid for elementary education was materially increased. In 1912, a new and more modern plan of studies for the secondary schools was promulgated. Since 1912 many important advances have been inaugurated, such as elementary schools of agriculture, vocational schools, continuation schools, the middle-class industrial and commercial schools. The World War directed new attention to the educational needs of the nation. Italy, at last thoroughly awakened, seems destined to be a great world power politically and commercially, and we may look forward to seeing education used by the Italian State as a great constructive force for the advancement of its national interests.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. Show how the Revolution marked out the lines of future educational evolution for France.
2. Explain why France and Italy evolved a school system so much more centralized than did other European nations.
3. Explain Napoleon’s lack of interest in primary education, in view of the needs of France in his day.
4. Show that Napoleon was right, time and circumstances considered, in placing the state emphasis on the types of education he favored.
5. Explain why middle-class education should have received such special attention in Cousin’s Report, and in the Law of 1833.
6. Was the course of instruction provided for the primary schools in 1833, times and needs considered, a liberal one, or otherwise? Why?
7. Compare the 1833 and the 1850 courses.
8. Explain why all forms of education in France should have experienced such a marked expansion and development after 1875.
9. Explain why great military disasters, for the past 150 years, have nearly always resulted in national educational reorganization.
10. Appraise the work and the permanent influence of Napoleon.
11. Explain Napoleon’s interest in establishing schools and universities, when the Austrian and Church authorities were so interested in abolishing what he had created.
12. What did the dropping of religious instruction from the primary schools of both France and Italy, both strong Catholic countries, indicate as to national development?
SELECTED READINGS
In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are reproduced:
282. Le Brun: Founding of the School of Arts and Trades.
283. Jourdain: Refounding of the Superior Normal School.
284. Cousin: Recommendations for Education in France.
285. Guizot: Address on the Law of 1833.
286. Guizot: Principles underlying the Law of 1833.
287. Guizot: Letter to the Primary Teachers of France.
288. Arnold: Guizot’s Work as Minister of Public Instruction.
289. Quinet: A Lay School for a Lay Society.
290. Ferry: Moral and Civic Instruction replaces the Religious.
QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS
1. Just what attitude toward education did the action of Napoleon in changing the character of the school at Compi�gne (282) express?
2. What type of school (283) was the recreated Superior Normal?
3. Just what did Victor Cousin recommend (284) as to (a) schools to be created; (_b_) control and administration; (_c_) compulsory attendance; (_d_) schools for the middle classes; and (_e_) education and control of teachers?
4. Was Guizot’s Law of 1833 (285) in harmony with the recommendations of Cousin (284)?
5. Why have public opinion and legislative action, in France and elsewhere, so completely reversed the positions taken by Guizot and his advisers (286) in framing the Law of 1833? 6. From Guizot’s letter to the teachers of France (287), and Arnold’s description of his work (288), just what do you infer to have been the nature of his interest in advancing primary education in France?
7. Contrast the reasoning of Guizot (286) and Quinet (289) on lay instruction. Of the reasoning of the two men, which is now accepted in France and the United States?
8. Contrast the letters of Guizot (287) and Ferry (290) to the primary teachers of France.
SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES
Arnold, Matthew. Popular Education in France.
* Arnold, Matthew. Schools and Universities on the Continent.
* Barnard, Henry. National Education in Europe.
Barnard, Henry. American Journal of Education, vol. XX.
Compayrďż˝, G. History of Pedagogy, chapter XXI.
* Farrington, Fr. E. The Public Primary School System of France.
* Farrington, Fr. E. French Secondary Schools.
Guizot, F. P. G. M�moires, Extracts from, covering work as Minister of Public Instruction, 1832-37, in Barnard’s American Journal of Education, vol. XI, pp. 254-81, 357-99.
THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND
I. THE CHARITABLE VOLUNTARY BEGINNINGS
ENGLISH PROGRESS A SLOW BUT PEACEFUL EVOLUTION. The beginnings of national educational organization in England were neither so simple nor so easy as in the other lands we have described. So far this was in part due to the long-established idea, on the part of the small ruling class, that education was no business of the State; in part to the deeply ingrained conception as to the religious purpose of all instruction; in part to the fact that the controlling upper classes had for long been in possession of an educational system which rendered satisfactory service in preparing leaders for both Church and State; and in part—probably in large part—to the fact that national evolution in England, since the time of the Civil War (1642-49) has been a slow and peaceful growth, though accompanied by much hard thinking and vigorous parliamentary fighting. Since the Reformation (1534-39) and the Puritan uprising led by Cromwell (1642-49), no civil strife has convulsed the land, destroyed old institutions, and forced rapid changes in old established practices. Neither has the country been in danger from foreign invasion since that memorable week in July, 1588, when Drake destroyed the Spanish Armada and made the future of England as a world power secure.
English educational evolution has in consequence been slow, and changes and progress have come only in response to much pressure, and usually as a reluctant concession to avoid more serious trouble. A strong English characteristic has been the ability to argue rather than fight out questions of national policy; to exhibit marked tolerance of the opinions of others during the discussion; and finally to recognize enough of the proponents’ point of view to be willing to make concessions sufficient to arrive at an agreement. This has resulted in a slow but a peaceful evolution, and this slow and peaceful evolution has for long been the dominant characteristic of the political, social, and educational progress of the English people. The whole history of the two centuries of evolution toward a national system of education is a splendid illustration of this essentially English characteristic.
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS. England, it will be remembered (chapter XIX, Section III), had early made marked progress in both political and religious liberty. Ahead of any other people we find there the beginnings of democratic liberty, popular enlightenment, freedom of the press, religious toleration, [1] social reform, and scientific and industrial progress. All these influences awakened in England, earlier than in any other European nation, a rather general desire to be able to read (R. 170), and by the opening of the eighteenth century we find the beginnings of a charitable and philanthropic movement on the part of the churches and the upper classes to extend a knowledge of the elements of learning to the poorer classes of the population.
As a result, as we have seen (chapter XVIII), the eighteenth century in England, educationally, was characterized by a new attitude toward the educational problem and a marked extension of educational opportunity.
Even before the beginning of the century the courts had taken a new attitude toward church control of teaching, [2] and in 1700 had freed the teacher of the elementary school from control by the bishops through license. [3] In 1714 an Act of Parliament (13 Anne, c. 7) exempted elementary schools from the penalties of conformity legislation, and they were thereafter free to multiply and their teachers to teach. [4] The dame school (R. 235) now became an established English institution (p. 447).
Private-adventure schools of a number of types arose (p. 451). The churches here and there began to provide elementary parish-schools for the children of their poorer members (p. 449), or training-schools for other children who were to go out to service (R. 241). Workhouse schools and “schools of industry” also were used to provide for orphans and the children of paupers (p. 453).
THE CHARITY-SCHOOL SYSTEM. Most important of all was the organization, by groups of individuals (R. 237) and by Societies (S.P.C.K.; p. 449) formed for the purpose, and maintained by subscription (R. 240), collections (R.
291), and
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