The History of England, from the Accession of James the Second - Volume 1 by Thomas Babington Macaulay (diy ebook reader .txt) π
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a sudden hurled down from the chair of state without a
struggle. They had seen a new representative system devised,
tried and abandoned. They had seen a new House of Lords created
and scattered. They had seen great masses of property violently
transferred from Cavaliers to Roundheads, and from Roundheads
back to Cavaliers. During these events no man could be a stirring
and thriving politician who was not prepared to change with every
change of fortune. It was only in retirement that any person
could long keep the character either of a steady Royalist or of a
steady Republican. One who, in such an age, is determined to
attain civil greatness must renounce all thoughts of consistency.
Instead of affecting immutability in the midst of endless
mutation, he must be always on the watch for the indications of a
coming reaction. He must seize the exact moment for deserting a
falling cause. Having gone all lengths with a faction while it
was uppermost, he must suddenly extricate himself from it when
its difficulties begin, must assail it, must persecute it, must
enter on a new career of power and prosperity in company with new
associates. His situation naturally developes in him to the
highest degree a peculiar class of abilities and a peculiar class
of vices. He becomes quick of observation and fertile of
resource. He catches without effort the tone of any sect or party
with which he chances to mingle. He discerns the signs of the
times with a sagacity which to the multitude appears miraculous,
with a sagacity resembling that with which a veteran police
officer pursues the faintest indications of crime, or with which
a Mohawk warrior follows a track through the woods. But we shell
seldom find, in a statesman so trained, integrity, constancy, any
of the virtues of the noble family of Truth. He has no faith in
any doctrine, no zeal for any cause. He has seen so many old
institutions swept away, that he has no reverence for
prescription. He has seen so many new institutions, from which
much had been expected, produce mere disappointment, that he has
no hope of improvement. He sneers alike at those who are anxious
to preserve and at those who are eager to reform. There is
nothing in the state which he could not, without a scruple or a
blush, join in defending or in destroying. Fidelity to opinions
and to friends seems to him mere dulness and wrongheadedness.
Politics he regards, not as a science of which the object is the
happiness of mankind, but as an exciting game of mixed chance and
skill, at which a dexterous and lucky player may win an estate, a
coronet, perhaps a crown, and at which one rash move may lead to
the loss of fortune and of life. Ambition, which, in good times,
and in good minds, is half a virtue, now, disjoined from every
elevated and philanthropic sentiment, becomes a selfish cupidity
scarcely less ignoble than avarice. Among those politicians who,
from the Restoration to the accession of the House of Hanover,
were at the head of the great parties in the state, very few can
be named whose reputation is not stained by what, in our age,
would be called gross perfidy and corruption. It is scarcely an
exaggeration to say that the most unprincipled public men who
have taken part in affairs within our memory would, if tried by
the standard which was in fashion during the latter part of the
seventeenth century, deserve to be regarded as scrupulous and
disinterested.
While these political, religious, and moral changes were taking
place in England, the Royal authority had been without difficulty
reestablished in every other part of the British islands. In
Scotland the restoration of the Stuarts had been hailed with
delight; for it was regarded as the restoration of national
independence. And true it was that the yoke which Cromwell had
imposed was, in appearance, taken away, that the Scottish Estates
again met in their old hall at Edinburgh, and that the Senators
of the College of Justice again administered the Scottish law
according to the old forms. Yet was the independence of the
little kingdom necessarily rather nominal than real; for, as long
as the King had England on his side, he had nothing to apprehend
from disaffection in his other dominions. He was now in such a
situation that he could renew the attempt which had proved
destructive to his father without any danger of his father's
fate. Charles the First had tried to force his own religion by
his regal power on the Scots at a moment when both his religion
and his regal power were unpopular in England; and he had not
only failed, but had raised troubles which had ultimately cost
him his crown and his head. Times had now changed: England was
zealous for monarchy and prelacy; and therefore the scheme which
had formerly been in the highest degree imprudent might be
resumed with little risk to the throne. The government resolved
to set up a prelatical church in Scotland. The design was
disapproved by every Scotchman whose judgment was entitled to
respect. Some Scottish statesmen who were zealous for the King's
prerogative had been bred Presbyterians. Though little troubled
with scruples, they retained a preference for the religion of
their childhood; and they well knew how strong a hold that
religion had on the hearts of their countrymen. They remonstrated
strongly: but, when they found that they remonstrated in vain,
they had not virtue enough to persist in an opposition which
would have given offence to their master; and several of them
stooped to the wickedness and baseness of persecuting what in
their consciences they believed to be the purest form of
Christianity. The Scottish Parliament was so constituted that it
had scarcely ever offered any serious opposition even to Kings
much weaker than Charles then was. Episcopacy, therefore, was
established by law. As to the form of worship, a large discretion
was left to the clergy. In some churches the English Liturgy was
used. In others, the ministers selected from that Liturgy such
prayers and thanksgivings as were likely to be least offensive to
the people. But in general the doxology was sung at the close of
public worship; and the Apostles' Creed was recited when baptism
was administered. By the great body of the Scottish nation the
new Church was detested both as superstitious and as foreign; as
tainted with the corruptions of Rome, and as a mark of the
predominance of England. There was, however, no general
insurrection. The country was not what it had been twenty-two
years before. Disastrous war and alien domination had tamed the
spirit of the people. The aristocracy, which was held in great
honour by the middle class and by the populace, had put itself at
the head of the movement against Charles the First, but proved
obsequious to Charles the Second. From the English Puritans no
aid was now to be expected. They were a feeble party, proscribed
both by law and by public opinion. The bulk of the Scottish
nation, therefore, sullenly submitted, and, with many misgivings
of conscience, attended the ministrations of the Episcopal
clergy, or of Presbyterian divines who had consented to accept
from the government a half toleration, known by the name of the
Indulgence. But there were, particularly in the western lowlands,
many fierce and resolute men who held that the obligation to
observe the Covenant was paramount to the obligation to obey the
magistrate. These people, in defiance of the law, persisted in
meeting to worship God after their own fashion. The Indulgence
they regarded, not as a partial reparation of the wrongs
inflicted by the State on the Church, but as a new wrong, the
more odious because it was disguised under the appearance of a
benefit. Persecution, they said, could only kill the body; but
the black Indulgence was deadly to the soul. Driven from the
towns, they assembled on heaths and mountains. Attacked by the
civil power, they without scruple repelled force by force. At
every conventicle they mustered in arms. They repeatedly broke
out into open rebellion. They were easily defeated, and
mercilessly punished: but neither defeat nor punishment could
subdue their spirit. Hunted down like wild beasts, tortured till
their bones were beaten flat, imprisoned by hundreds, hanged by
scores, exposed at one time to the license of soldiers from
England, abandoned at another time to the mercy of troops of
marauders from the Highlands, they still stood at bay in a mood
so savage that the boldest and mightiest oppressor could not but
dread the audacity of their despair.
Such was, during the reign of Charles the Second, the state of
Scotland. Ireland was not less distracted. In that island existed
feuds, compared with which the hottest animosities of English
politicians were lukewarm. The enmity between the Irish Cavaliers
and the Irish Roundheads was almost forgotten in the fiercer
enmity which raged between the English and the Celtic races. The
interval between the Episcopalian and the Presbyterian seemed to
vanish, when compared with the interval which separated both from
the Papist. During the late civil troubles the greater part of
the Irish soil had been transferred from the vanquished nation to
the victors. To the favour of the Crown few either of the old or
of the new occupants had any pretensions. The despoilers and the
despoiled had, for the most part, been rebels alike. The
government was soon perplexed and wearied by the conflicting
claims and mutual accusations of the two incensed factions. Those
colonists among whom Cromwell had portioned out the conquered
territory, and whose descendants are still called Cromwellians,
asserted that the aboriginal inhabitants were deadly enemies of
the English nation under every dynasty, and of the Protestant
religion in every form. They described and exaggerated the
atrocities which had disgraced the insurrection of Ulster: they
urged the King to follow up with resolution the policy of the
Protector; and they were not ashamed to hint that there would
never be peace in Ireland till the old Irish race should be
extirpated. The Roman Catholics extenuated their offense as they
best might, and expatiated in piteous language on the severity of
their punishment, which, in truth, had not been lenient. They
implored Charles not to confound the innocent with the guilty,
and reminded him that many of the guilty had atoned for their
fault by returning to their allegiance, and by defending his
rights against the murderers of his father. The court, sick of
the importunities of two parties, neither of which it had any
reason to love, at length relieved itself from trouble by
dictating a compromise. That system, cruel, but most complete and
energetic, by which Oliver had proposed to make the island
thoroughly English, was abandoned. The Cromwellians were induced
to relinquish a third part
struggle. They had seen a new representative system devised,
tried and abandoned. They had seen a new House of Lords created
and scattered. They had seen great masses of property violently
transferred from Cavaliers to Roundheads, and from Roundheads
back to Cavaliers. During these events no man could be a stirring
and thriving politician who was not prepared to change with every
change of fortune. It was only in retirement that any person
could long keep the character either of a steady Royalist or of a
steady Republican. One who, in such an age, is determined to
attain civil greatness must renounce all thoughts of consistency.
Instead of affecting immutability in the midst of endless
mutation, he must be always on the watch for the indications of a
coming reaction. He must seize the exact moment for deserting a
falling cause. Having gone all lengths with a faction while it
was uppermost, he must suddenly extricate himself from it when
its difficulties begin, must assail it, must persecute it, must
enter on a new career of power and prosperity in company with new
associates. His situation naturally developes in him to the
highest degree a peculiar class of abilities and a peculiar class
of vices. He becomes quick of observation and fertile of
resource. He catches without effort the tone of any sect or party
with which he chances to mingle. He discerns the signs of the
times with a sagacity which to the multitude appears miraculous,
with a sagacity resembling that with which a veteran police
officer pursues the faintest indications of crime, or with which
a Mohawk warrior follows a track through the woods. But we shell
seldom find, in a statesman so trained, integrity, constancy, any
of the virtues of the noble family of Truth. He has no faith in
any doctrine, no zeal for any cause. He has seen so many old
institutions swept away, that he has no reverence for
prescription. He has seen so many new institutions, from which
much had been expected, produce mere disappointment, that he has
no hope of improvement. He sneers alike at those who are anxious
to preserve and at those who are eager to reform. There is
nothing in the state which he could not, without a scruple or a
blush, join in defending or in destroying. Fidelity to opinions
and to friends seems to him mere dulness and wrongheadedness.
Politics he regards, not as a science of which the object is the
happiness of mankind, but as an exciting game of mixed chance and
skill, at which a dexterous and lucky player may win an estate, a
coronet, perhaps a crown, and at which one rash move may lead to
the loss of fortune and of life. Ambition, which, in good times,
and in good minds, is half a virtue, now, disjoined from every
elevated and philanthropic sentiment, becomes a selfish cupidity
scarcely less ignoble than avarice. Among those politicians who,
from the Restoration to the accession of the House of Hanover,
were at the head of the great parties in the state, very few can
be named whose reputation is not stained by what, in our age,
would be called gross perfidy and corruption. It is scarcely an
exaggeration to say that the most unprincipled public men who
have taken part in affairs within our memory would, if tried by
the standard which was in fashion during the latter part of the
seventeenth century, deserve to be regarded as scrupulous and
disinterested.
While these political, religious, and moral changes were taking
place in England, the Royal authority had been without difficulty
reestablished in every other part of the British islands. In
Scotland the restoration of the Stuarts had been hailed with
delight; for it was regarded as the restoration of national
independence. And true it was that the yoke which Cromwell had
imposed was, in appearance, taken away, that the Scottish Estates
again met in their old hall at Edinburgh, and that the Senators
of the College of Justice again administered the Scottish law
according to the old forms. Yet was the independence of the
little kingdom necessarily rather nominal than real; for, as long
as the King had England on his side, he had nothing to apprehend
from disaffection in his other dominions. He was now in such a
situation that he could renew the attempt which had proved
destructive to his father without any danger of his father's
fate. Charles the First had tried to force his own religion by
his regal power on the Scots at a moment when both his religion
and his regal power were unpopular in England; and he had not
only failed, but had raised troubles which had ultimately cost
him his crown and his head. Times had now changed: England was
zealous for monarchy and prelacy; and therefore the scheme which
had formerly been in the highest degree imprudent might be
resumed with little risk to the throne. The government resolved
to set up a prelatical church in Scotland. The design was
disapproved by every Scotchman whose judgment was entitled to
respect. Some Scottish statesmen who were zealous for the King's
prerogative had been bred Presbyterians. Though little troubled
with scruples, they retained a preference for the religion of
their childhood; and they well knew how strong a hold that
religion had on the hearts of their countrymen. They remonstrated
strongly: but, when they found that they remonstrated in vain,
they had not virtue enough to persist in an opposition which
would have given offence to their master; and several of them
stooped to the wickedness and baseness of persecuting what in
their consciences they believed to be the purest form of
Christianity. The Scottish Parliament was so constituted that it
had scarcely ever offered any serious opposition even to Kings
much weaker than Charles then was. Episcopacy, therefore, was
established by law. As to the form of worship, a large discretion
was left to the clergy. In some churches the English Liturgy was
used. In others, the ministers selected from that Liturgy such
prayers and thanksgivings as were likely to be least offensive to
the people. But in general the doxology was sung at the close of
public worship; and the Apostles' Creed was recited when baptism
was administered. By the great body of the Scottish nation the
new Church was detested both as superstitious and as foreign; as
tainted with the corruptions of Rome, and as a mark of the
predominance of England. There was, however, no general
insurrection. The country was not what it had been twenty-two
years before. Disastrous war and alien domination had tamed the
spirit of the people. The aristocracy, which was held in great
honour by the middle class and by the populace, had put itself at
the head of the movement against Charles the First, but proved
obsequious to Charles the Second. From the English Puritans no
aid was now to be expected. They were a feeble party, proscribed
both by law and by public opinion. The bulk of the Scottish
nation, therefore, sullenly submitted, and, with many misgivings
of conscience, attended the ministrations of the Episcopal
clergy, or of Presbyterian divines who had consented to accept
from the government a half toleration, known by the name of the
Indulgence. But there were, particularly in the western lowlands,
many fierce and resolute men who held that the obligation to
observe the Covenant was paramount to the obligation to obey the
magistrate. These people, in defiance of the law, persisted in
meeting to worship God after their own fashion. The Indulgence
they regarded, not as a partial reparation of the wrongs
inflicted by the State on the Church, but as a new wrong, the
more odious because it was disguised under the appearance of a
benefit. Persecution, they said, could only kill the body; but
the black Indulgence was deadly to the soul. Driven from the
towns, they assembled on heaths and mountains. Attacked by the
civil power, they without scruple repelled force by force. At
every conventicle they mustered in arms. They repeatedly broke
out into open rebellion. They were easily defeated, and
mercilessly punished: but neither defeat nor punishment could
subdue their spirit. Hunted down like wild beasts, tortured till
their bones were beaten flat, imprisoned by hundreds, hanged by
scores, exposed at one time to the license of soldiers from
England, abandoned at another time to the mercy of troops of
marauders from the Highlands, they still stood at bay in a mood
so savage that the boldest and mightiest oppressor could not but
dread the audacity of their despair.
Such was, during the reign of Charles the Second, the state of
Scotland. Ireland was not less distracted. In that island existed
feuds, compared with which the hottest animosities of English
politicians were lukewarm. The enmity between the Irish Cavaliers
and the Irish Roundheads was almost forgotten in the fiercer
enmity which raged between the English and the Celtic races. The
interval between the Episcopalian and the Presbyterian seemed to
vanish, when compared with the interval which separated both from
the Papist. During the late civil troubles the greater part of
the Irish soil had been transferred from the vanquished nation to
the victors. To the favour of the Crown few either of the old or
of the new occupants had any pretensions. The despoilers and the
despoiled had, for the most part, been rebels alike. The
government was soon perplexed and wearied by the conflicting
claims and mutual accusations of the two incensed factions. Those
colonists among whom Cromwell had portioned out the conquered
territory, and whose descendants are still called Cromwellians,
asserted that the aboriginal inhabitants were deadly enemies of
the English nation under every dynasty, and of the Protestant
religion in every form. They described and exaggerated the
atrocities which had disgraced the insurrection of Ulster: they
urged the King to follow up with resolution the policy of the
Protector; and they were not ashamed to hint that there would
never be peace in Ireland till the old Irish race should be
extirpated. The Roman Catholics extenuated their offense as they
best might, and expatiated in piteous language on the severity of
their punishment, which, in truth, had not been lenient. They
implored Charles not to confound the innocent with the guilty,
and reminded him that many of the guilty had atoned for their
fault by returning to their allegiance, and by defending his
rights against the murderers of his father. The court, sick of
the importunities of two parties, neither of which it had any
reason to love, at length relieved itself from trouble by
dictating a compromise. That system, cruel, but most complete and
energetic, by which Oliver had proposed to make the island
thoroughly English, was abandoned. The Cromwellians were induced
to relinquish a third part
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