Hidden History: Lost Civilizations, Secret Knowledge, and Ancient Mysteries by Brian Haughton (beginner reading books for adults txt) 📕

Despite the repeated tests with replicas of the Baghdad Batteries, skeptics argue that there is no proof that they ever functioned as electric batteries. They note that the ancient people supposedly responsible for this technology, the Parthians, were known as great warriors, but not regarded for their scientific achievements. Skeptics also point to the fact that despite the extensive historical records we have concerning this area and period, there is no mention of anything connected with electricity anywhere. There are also no archaeological finds from the Parthian period that have been proved to be electrogilded, and no evidence of wires, conductors, or more complete examples of ancient batteries. Some researchers have also disputed the results from experiments with replicas of the battery, claiming that they have been unable to duplicate the results themselves. Dr. Arne Egge- brecht's experiments in particular, have come under fire. According to Dr. Bettina Schmitz, a researcher at Roemer and Pelizaeus Museum (the same institution where Eggebrecht did his 1978 experiments with reproductions of the battery), there are no photos or written documentation of the experiments which Eggebrecht undertook.

A favored alternative explanation of those skeptical of the electrical battery theory is that the jars acted as storage vessels for sacred scrolls, perhaps containing rituals of some sort written on organic material such as parchment or papyrus. If such organic materials had rotted away, the sceptics claim, they would leave a slightly

acidic organic residue, which would explain the corrosion on the copper cylinder. They believe that an asphalt seal such as that on the Baghdad Battery, while not particularly practical for a Galvanic cell, would be perfect as a hermetic seal for storage over an extended period.

That the Baghdad Batteries would be inefficient compared to to modern devices, even when several were connected together, is not in doubt. But the fact remains that the device does actually function as an electric cell. What is probable is that, similar to the ancient Greeks with amber, the makers of the object did not properly understand the principle involved. But this is not unusual. Many innovations, such as gunpowder and herbal medicines, were developed before their fundamentals were soundly grasped. Nevertheless, even if the Baghdad artifact is one day proved to be an ancient electric battery, it would not be evidence of any genuine comprehension of electrical phenomena 2,000 years ago. The question now remains whether the Baghdad Battery was an isolated find. Can its manufacturers have been the only people in antiquity to discover-probably by accidentelectricity? Obviously there is a need for further evidence, whether literary or archaeological, because based on current knowledge, it is likely that the battery is indeed a unique find. Tragically, in 2003, during the war in Iraq, the Baghdad Battery was looted from the National Museum, along with thousands of other priceless ancient artifacts. Its current whereabouts are unknown.

the Ancient Hill Figures of England

Photograph by Dan Huby (public domain).

The Uffington White Horse, as seen from the air.

The cutting of huge figures or geoglyphs into the turf of English hillsides has been going on for more than 3,000 years. There are 56 hill figures scattered around England, with the vast majority on the chalk downlands of the southern part of the country. The figures include giants, horses, crosses, and regimental badges. Though the majority of these glyphs date within the last 300 years or so, there are a few that are much older. The most famous of these is perhaps the mysterious Uffington White Horse in Berkshire, recently redated and shown to be even older than its previ

ously assigned ancient pre-Roman, Iron Age date. More controversial are the Cerne Abbot Giant in Dorset and the enigmatic Long Man of Wilmington in Sussex. What was the purpose of these giant figures? Who carved them? And how have the oldest examples survived for perhaps thousands of years?

The method of cutting the figures was simply to remove the overlying turf to reveal the gleaming white chalk below. However, the grass would soon grow over the glyph again unless it was regularly cleaned or scoured by a fairly large team of people. One reason that the vast majority of hill figures have disappeared is that when the traditions associated with the figures faded, people no longer bothered or remembered to clear away the grass to expose the chalk outline. Furthermore, over hundreds of years the outlines would sometimes change due to the scourers not always cutting in exactly the same place, thus changing the shape of the original glyph. The fact that any ancient hill figures survive at all in England today is testament to the strength and continuity of local customs and beliefs which, in one case at least, must stretch back at least a millennium.

The oldest and most famous hill figure in England is the 360 feet long and 131 feet high Uffington White Horse, located 1.5 miles south of the village of Uffington on the Berkshire Downs. This unique stylized representation of a horse consists of a long, sleek back, thin disjointed legs, a streaming tail, and a bird-like beaked head. The elegant creature almost melts into a landscape rich in prehistoric sites. The horse is situated on a steep escarpment, close to the Late Bronze Age (c. seventh century B.C.) hillfort of Uffington Castle and below a long-distance Neolithic track called the Ridgeway. The Uffington Horse is also surrounded by Neolithic and Bronze Age burial mounds. It is only 1 mile from the Neolithic chambered long barrow of Wayland's Smithy, and not far from the Bronze Age cemetery of Lambourn Seven Barrows. The carving has been placed in such a way as to make it extremely difficult to see from close quarters, and, as with many geoglyphs, it is best appreciated from the air. Nevertheless, there are certain areas

of the Vale of the White Horse, the valley containing and named after the enigmatic creature, from which an adequate impression may be