Sixteen Experimental Investigations from the Harvard Psychological Laboratory by Hugo Münsterberg (100 books to read .txt) 📕

give valuable results for the theory of symmetry.

The first question to be taken up was the influence of right and left

positions on choice. A long series of experiments was undertaken with

a line 80×10 mm. on one side and a line 160×10 mm. on the other, in

which the positions of these were reversed, and each in turn taken as

fixed and variable, with a view to determining the effect of right and

left positions. No definite conclusions emerged; and in the following

experiments, most of which have been made for both right and left

positions, the results will be treated as if made for one side alone,

and, where averages are taken, will be considered as indifferently

left or right.

The experiments of Dr. Pierce were made for only one position of the

fixed line—at 12 cm. distance from the center. The characteristic of

the following experiments is their reference to all positions of the

fixed line. For instance a fixed line, 10 cm. in length at 12 cm.

distance from the center, might be balanced by a line 5 cm. in length

at 20 cm. distance. But would the distance be in the same proportion

for a given distance of the fixed line of say 20 or 25 cm.? It is

clear that only a progressive series of positions of the fixed line

would suggest the changes in points of view or tendencies of choice of

the subject. Accordingly, for all the experiments the fixed line or

other object was placed successively at distances of 20, 40, 60 mm.,

etc., from the center; or at 40, 80 mm., etc., according to the

character of the object, and for each of these fixed points the

subject made one or two choices. Only an understanding of the

direction in which the variable series moved gave in many cases an

explanation for the choice.

Each choice, it should be added, was itself the outcome of a long

series of trials to find the most pleasing position. Thus, each

subject made only about ten choices in an hour, each of which, as it

appears in the tables, represents a large number of approximations.

B. Experiments on Size.

I have said that different tendencies or types of choice in

arrangement appeared. It will be convenient in the course of

explaining in detail the method of experiment, to discuss at the same

time the meaning of these types of choice.

From analysis of the pictures, the simplest suggestion of balance

appeared in the setting off against each other of objects of different

sizes;—an apparent equivalence of a large object near the center with

a small object far from the center; thus inevitably suggesting the

relations of the mechanical balance, or lever, in which the heavy

short arm balances the light long arm. This was also the result of

Dr. Pierce’s experiments for one position of his fixed line. The

experiments which follow, however, differ in some significant points

from this result. The instrument used was the one described in the

preceding section. On one side, in the middle of the vertical strip,

was placed the ‘fixed’ line, denoted by F., and the subject moved the

‘variable’ line, denoted by V., until he found the arrangement

æsthetically pleasing. The experimenter alone placed F. at the given

reading, and read off the position of V. After the choice F. was

placed at the next interval, V. was again tried in different

positions, and so on. In the following tables the successive positions

of F. are given in the left column, reading downward, and the

corresponding positions of V. in the right column. The different

choices are placed together, but in case of any preference the second

choice is indicated. The measurements are always in millimeters. Thus,

F. 40, V. 60, means that F. is 40 mm. to one side of the center, and

V. 60 mm. to the opposite side. F. 80×10, V. 160×10, means that the

white cardboard strips 80 mm.×10 mm., etc., are used. The minus sign

prefixed to a reading means that the variable was placed on the side

of the fixed line. An X indicates æsthetic dislike—refusal to choose.

An asterisk (*) indicates a second choice.

The following tables are specimen sets made by the subjects C, O,

and D.

I. (a) F. 80×10, V. 160×10.

F. V.

C. O. D.

40 62, 120 166, 130 28, 24

80 70, 110 104, 102 80, 126

120 46, X 70, 46 68,—44, 128*

160 26, 96 50, 25 85, 196,—88*

200 20, X 55, X —46, 230,* 220,—110*

I. (b) F. 160×10, V. 80×10.

F. V.

C. O. D.

40 74, 64 60, 96 27, 34

80 76, 65 72, 87 55, 138

120 60, 56 48, 82 70, 174

160 29, 74 16, 77 —114, 140, 138, 200

200 96, 36 25, 36 177,—146,—148, 230

Now, on Dr. Pierce’s theory, the variable in the first set should be

nearer the center, since it is twice the size of the fixed line;—but

the choices V. 120, 166, 130 for F. 40; V. 110, 104, 102, 126 for F.

80; V. 128 for F. 120; V. 196 for F. 160; V. 230, 220 for F. 200, show

that other forces are at work. If these variations from the expected

were slight, or if the presence of second choices did not show a

certain opposition or contrast between the two positions, they might

disappear in an average. But the position of F. 40, over against V.

120, 166, 130, is evidently not a chance variation. Still more

striking are the variations for I. (b). Here we should expect the

variable, being smaller, to be farther from the center. But for F. 40,

we have V. 27, 34; for F. 80, all nearer but two; for F. 120, V. 60,

56, 48, 82, 70; for F. 160, V. 29, 74, 16, 77, 138, and for F. 200, V.

96, 36, 25, 36, 177—while several positions on the same side of the

center as the constant show a point of view quite irreconcilable with

mechanical balance.

II. (a) F. 2 LINES 80×10. V. SINGLE LINK 80×10.

F. V.

C. O. P.

40-60 58, 114* 138, 20 96, 84 166

60-80 48 40, 138* 100, 56 150

80-100 64 70, 162* 47, 87 128

100-120 70 to 80 60 53, 53 X

120-140 58 82 50, 48 35

140-160 74 95 to 100 22, 32 37

160-180 72 102 X, X 42

180-200 90 X X, X 50

Here the variable should supposedly be the farther out; but we have V.

58, 20 for F. 40-60; V. 48, 40, 56 for F. 60; V. 64, 70, 87 for F. 80;

no larger choice for F. 100-120; indeed, from this point on everything

nearer, and very much nearer. We can trace in these cases, more

clearly perhaps than in the preceding, the presence of definite

tendencies. O and P, from positions in accord with the mechanical

theory, approach the center rapidly; while C is seldom ‘mechanical,’

but very slowly recedes from the center. The large number of refusals

to choose assures us that the subjects demand a definitely pleasant

arrangement—in other words, that every choice is the expression of a

deliberate judgment.

Taking again the experiments 1. (a) and 1. (b), and grouping the

results for nine subjects, C, O, A, S, H, G, D, and P,

we obtain the following general types of choice. The experiments were

repeated by each subject, so that we have eighteen records for each

position. I should note here that preliminary experiments showed that

near the frame the threshold of difference of position was 10 mm., or

more, while near the center it was 4 or 5 mm.; that is, arrangements

were often judged symmetrically equal which really differed by from 4

to 10 mm., according as they were near to or far from the center. In

grouping types of choice, therefore, choices lying within these limits

will be taken as belonging to the same type.

EXP. 1. (a) F.(80 X 10). V.(160 X 10).

1. F. 40. V. 40.¹

Types of Choice for V.

(1) 24 24 25 28

(2) 40 42 45 45 40 40 40

(3) 62 65

(4) 100 105 1O9 120 130 136 120

(5) 166 180 200 200 200 200 160 160

¹This table is obtained by taking from the full list, not given

here, of 1. (b) F. (l60 X 10), V. (80 X 10), those positions of

160 X 10 where the variable 80 X 10 has been placed at or near

40, thus giving the same arrangement as for 1. (a).

It might be objected that a group 40-65 (2-3) would not be larger than

one of 100-136 (4), but the break between 45 and 62 shows the zones

not continuous. Moreover, as said above, the positions far from the

center have a very large difference threshold.

I. (a) 2. F. 80:—(1) 24, (2) 50, (3) 68 70, (4) 80 85 94 95

85, (5) 102 104 110 120 124 126 125* 132, (6) 187; also V.

80:—(2) 40 40, (4) 80, (5) 120 120, (6) 160 160.

I. (a) 3. F. 120:—(1) 44 46, (2) 64 48 70 70, (3) 85 95 97

91, (4) 113 113 118, (5) 168 169 178;—44, X; also V.

120:—(1) 40 40, (3) 80 80 80, (4) 120 120, (5) 160 160.

I. (a) 4. F. 160:—(1) 25 26, (2) 40 50 57, (3) 82 85 95 100*,

(4) 114 115 130, (5) 145 145 156 162, (6) 196,

(7)—88*—150*—105.

I. (a) 5. F. 200:—(1) 20 23 28 36, (2) 55, (3) 108 124 130*,

(4) 171 189 199 195, (5) 220 230*, (6)—46—90—110*.

On comparing the different groups, we find that in 1 and 2 there is a

decided preference for a position somewhat less than half way between

center and frame—more sharply marked for 1 than for 2. From 3 onward

there is a decided preference for the mechanical arrangement, which

would bring the larger strip nearer. Besides this, however, there are

groups of variations, some very near the center, others approaching to

symmetry. The maintenance of geometrical symmetry at a pretty constant

ratio is to be noted; as also the presence of positions on the same

side of the center as the fixed line. Before discussing the

significance of these groups we may consider the results of Experiment

II. (F. double line 80×10, V. single line 80×10) without giving

complete lists.

We notice therein, first of all, the practical disappearance of the

symmetrical choice; for F. 40-60, 60-80, 80-100, a tendency,

decreasing, however, with distance from the center, to the mechanical

arrangement; for F. 100-120, and all the rest, not one mechanical

choice, and the positions confined almost entirely to the region

35-75. In some cases, however, the mechanical choice for (1) 40-80,

(2) 60-80, was one of two, e.g., we have for (1) 20 and 138, for (3)

70 and 162; in the last two cases the mechanical being the second

choice.

Now the reversals of the mechanical choice occur for Exp. I. in 1 and

2 (F. 40 and F. 80); that is, when the small fixed line is near the

center, the larger variable is distant. For Exp. II. the reversals,

which are much more marked, occur in all cases beyond F. 40, F. 60

and F. 80; that is, when the double constant line is far from the

center, the single variable approaches. If the mechanical theory

prevailed, we should have in Exp. I. the lines together in the center,

and in Exp. II. both near the fringe.