The Power of Movement in Plants by Charles Darwin (best fiction books to read TXT) 📕

In the following Table some measurements of the cells in fairly well-developed pulvini of O. corniculata are given:—

Seedling 1 day old, with cotyledon 2.3 mm. in length.

Divisions of Micrometer.**

Average length of cells of

pulvinus…………………………………………..6 to 7

Length of longest cell below the

pulvinus………………………………. 13

Length of longest cell above the

pulvinus……………………………….. 20

Seedling 5 days old, cotyledon 3.1 mm. in length, with the pulvinus quite distinct.

Average length of cells of

pulvinus………………………………………….. 6

Length of longest cell below the

pulvinus………………………………. 22

Length of longest cell above the

pulvinus……………………………….. 40

Seedling 8 days old, cotyledon 5 mm. in length, with a true leaf formed but not yet expanded.

Average length of cells of

pulvinus………………………………………….. 9

Length of longest cell below the

pulvinus………………………………. 44

Length of longest cell above the

pulvinus……………………………….. 70

Seedling 13 days old, cotyledon 4.5 mm. in length, with a small true leaf fully developed. Average length of cells of pulvinus………………………………………….. 7

Length of longest cell below the

pulvinus………………………………. 30

Length of longest cell above the

pulvinus……………………………….. 60

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* Longitudinal sections show that the forms of the epidermic cells may be taken as a fair representation of those constituting the pulvinus.

** Each division equalled .003 mm.

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We here see that the cells of the pulvinus increase but little in length with advancing age, in comparison with those of the petiole both above and below it; but they continue to grow in width, and keep equal in this respect with the other cells of the petiole. The rate of growth, however, varies in all parts of the cotyledons, as may be observed in the measurements of the 8-days’ old seedling.

The cotyledons of seedlings only a day old rise at night considerably, sometimes as much as afterwards; but there was much variation in this respect. As the pulvinus is so indistinct at first, the movement probably does not then depend on the expansion of its cells, but on periodically unequal growth in the petiole. By the comparison of seedlings of different known ages, it was evident that the chief seat of growth of the petiole was in the upper part between the pulvinus and the blade; and this agrees with the fact (shown in the measurements above given) that the cells grow to a greater length in the upper than in the lower part. With a seedling 11 days old, the nocturnal rise was found to depend largely on the action of the pulvinus, for the petiole at night was curved upwards at this point; and during the day, whilst the petiole was horizontal, the lower surface of the pulvinus was wrinkled with the upper surface tense. Although the cotyledons at an advanced age do not rise at night to a higher inclination than whilst young, yet they have to pass through a larger angle (in one instance amounting to 63o) to gain their nocturnal position, as they are generally deflected beneath the horizon during the day. Even with the 11-days’ old seedling the movement did not depend exclusively on the pulvinus, for the blade where joined to the petiole was curved upwards, and this must be attributed to unequal growth. Therefore the periodic movements of the cotyledons of ‘O. corniculata’ depend on two distinct but conjoint actions, namely, the expansion of the cells of the pulvinus and on the growth of the upper part of the petiole, including the base of the blade.

Lotus Jacoboeus.—The seedlings of this plant present a case parallel to that of Oxalis corniculata in some respects, and in others unique, as far as we have seen. The cotyledons during the first 4 or 5 days of their life do not exhibit any plain nocturnal movement; but afterwards they stand vertically or almost vertically up at night. There is, however, some degree of variability in this respect, apparently dependent on the season and on the degree to which they have been illuminated during [page 122]

the day. With older seedlings, having cotyledons 4 mm. in length, which rise considerably at night, there is a well-developed pulvinus close to the blade, colourless, and rather narrower than the rest of the petiole, from which it is abruptly separated. It is formed of a mass of small cells of an average length of .021 mm.; whereas the cells in the lower part of the petiole are about .06 mm., and those in the blade from .034 to .04 mm. in length. The epidermic cells in the lower part of the petiole project conically, and thus differ in shape from those over the pulvinus.

Turning now to very young seedlings, the cotyledons of which do not rise at night and are only from 2 to 2 � mm. in length, their petioles do not exhibit any defined zone of small cells, destitute of chlorophyll and differing in shape exteriorly from the lower ones. Nevertheless, the cells at the place where a pulvinus will afterwards be developed are smaller (being on an average .015 mm. in length) than those in the lower parts of the same petiole, which gradually become larger in proceeding downwards, the largest being .030 mm. in length. At this early age the cells of the blade are about .027 mm. in length. We thus see that the pulvinus is formed by the cells in the uppermost part of the petiole, continuing for only a short time to increase in length, then being arrested in their growth, accompanied by the loss of their chlorophyll grains; whilst the cells in the lower part of the petiole continue for a long time to increase in length, those of the epidermis becoming more conical. The singular fact of the cotyledons of this plant not sleeping at first is therefore due to the pulvinus not being developed at an early age.]

We learn from these two cases of Lotus and Oxalis, that the development of a pulvinus follows from the growth of the cells over a small defined space of the petiole being almost arrested at an early age. With Lotus Jacobaeus the cells at first increase a little in length; in Oxalis corniculata they decrease a little, owing to self-division. A mass of such small cells forming a pulvinus, might therefore be either acquired or lost without any special difficulty, by different species in the same natural genus: and we know that

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with seedlings of Trifolium, Lotus, and Oxalis some of the species have a well-developed pulvinus, and others have none, or one in a rudimentary condition. As the movements caused by the alternate turgescence of the cells in the two halves of a pulvinus, must be largely determined by the extensibility and subsequent contraction of their walls, we can perhaps understand why a large number of small cells will be more efficient than a small number of large cells occupying the same space. As a pulvinus is formed by the arrestment of the growth of its cells, movements dependent on their action may be long-continued without any increase in length of the part thus provided; and such long-continued movements seem to be one chief end gained by the development of a pulvinus. Long-continued movement would be impossible in any part, without an inordinate increase in its length, if the turgescence of the cells was always followed by growth.

Disturbance of the Periodic Movements of Cotyledons by Light.—The hypocotyls and cotyledons of most seedling plants are, as is well known, extremely heliotropic; but cotyledons, besides being heliotropic, are affected paratonically (to use Sachs’ expression) by light; that is, their daily periodic movements are greatly and quickly disturbed by changes in its intensity or by its absence. It is not that they cease to circumnutate in darkness, for in all the many cases observed by us they continued to do so; but the normal order of their movements in relation to the alternations of day and night is much disturbed or quite annulled. This holds good with species the cotyledons of which rise or sink so much at night that they may be said to sleep, as well as with others which rise only a little. But different species are affected in very different degrees by changes in the light.

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[For instance, the cotyledons of Beta vulgaris, Solanum lycopersicum, Cerinthe major, and Lupinus luteus, when placed in darkness, moved down during the afternoon and early night, instead of rising as they would have done if they had been exposed to the light. All the individuals of the Solanum did not behave in the same manner, for the cotyledons of one circumnutated about the same spot between 2.30 and 10 P.M. The cotyledons of a seedling of Oxalis corniculata, which was feebly illuminated from above, moved downwards during the first morning in the normal manner, but on the second morning it moved upwards. The cotyledons of Lotus Jacoboeus were not affected by 4 h. of complete darkness, but when placed under a double skylight and thus feebly illuminated, they quite lost their periodical movements on the third morning. On the other hand, the cotyledons of Cucurbita ovifera moved in the normal manner during a whole day in darkness.

Seedlings of Githago segetum were feebly illuminated from above in the morning before their cotyledons had expanded, and they remained closed for the next 40 h. Other seedlings were placed in the dark after their cotyledons had opened in the morning and these did not begin to close until about 4 h. had elapsed. The cotyledons of Oxalis rosea sank vertically downwards after being left for 1 h. 20 m. in darkness; but those of some other species of Oxalis were not affected by several hours of darkness. The cotyledons of several species of Cassia are eminently susceptible to changes in the degree of light to which they are exposed: thus seedlings of an unnamed S. Brazilian species (a large and beautiful tree) were brought out of the hot-house and placed on a table in the middle of a room with two north-east and one north-west window, so that they were fairly well illuminated, though of course less so than in the hot-house, the day being moderately bright; and after 36 m. the cotyledons which had been horizontal rose up vertically and closed together as when asleep; after thus remaining on the table for 1 h. 13 m. they began to open. The cotyledons of young seedlings of another Brazilian species and of C. neglecta, treated in the same manner, behaved similarly, excepting that they did not rise up quite so much: they again became horizontal after about an hour.

Here is a more interesting case: seedlings of Cassia tora in two pots, which had stood for some time on the table in the room just described, had their cotyledons horizontal. One pot was now exposed for 2 h. to dull sunshine, and the cotyledons

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remained horizontal; it was then brought back to the table, and after 50 m.

the cotyledons had risen 68o above the horizon. The other pot was placed during the same 2 h. behind a screen in the room, where the light was very obscure, and the cotyledons rose 63o above the horizon; the pot was then replaced on the table, and after 50 m. the cotyledons had fallen 33o. These two pots with seedlings of the same age stood close together, and were exposed to exactly the same amount of light, yet the cotyledons in the one pot were rising, whilst those in the other pot were at the same time sinking. This fact illustrates in a striking manner that their movements are not governed by the actual amount, but by a change in the intensity or degree of the light. A similar experiment was tried with two sets of seedlings, both exposed to a dull light,