The Story of the Heavens by Sir Robert Stawell Ball (fantasy books to read .txt) 📕

remarkable variable, Mira Ceti, at the time of maximum. Professor Pickering has since then reported that bright lines have been found on the plates of forty-one previously known variables of this class, and that more than twenty other stars have been detected as variables by this peculiarity of their spectrum; that is, bright lines being seen in them suggested that the stars were variable, and further photometric investigations corroborated the fact.

The second subdivision (III.b) contains only comparatively faint stars, of which none exceed the fifth magnitude, and is limited to a small number of red stars. The strongly marked bands in their spectra are sharply defined and dark on the red side, while they fade away gradually towards the violet, exactly the reverse of what we see in the spectra of III.a. These bands appear to arise from the absorption due to hydrocarbon vapours present in the atmospheres of these stars; but there are also some lines visible which indicate the presence of metallic vapours, sodium being certainly among these. There can be little doubt that these stars represent the last stage in the life of a sun, when it has cooled down considerably and is not very far from actual extinction, owing to the increasing absorption of its remaining light in the atmosphere surrounding it.

The method employed for the spectroscopic determination of the motion of a star in the line of sight is the same as the method we have described in the chapter on the sun. The position of a certain line in the spectrum of a star is compared with the position of the corresponding bright line of an element in an artificially produced spectrum, and in this manner a displacement of the stellar line either towards the violet (indicating that the star is approaching us) or towards the red (indicating that it is receding) may be detected. The earliest attempt of this sort was made in 1867 by Sir William Huggins, who compared the F line in the spectrum of Sirius with the same line of the spectrum of hydrogen contained in a vacuum tube reflected into the field of his astronomical spectroscope, so that the two spectra appeared side by side. The work thus commenced and continued by him was afterwards taken up at the Greenwich Observatory; but the results obtained by these direct observations were never satisfactory, as remarkable discrepancies appeared between the values obtained by different observers, and even by the same observer on different nights. This is not to be wondered at when we bear in mind that the velocity of light is so enormous compared with any velocity with which a heavenly body may travel, that the change of wave length resulting from the latter motion can only be a very minute one, difficult to perceive, and still more difficult to measure. But since photography was first made use of for these investigations by Dr. Vogel, of Potsdam, much more accordant and reliable results have been obtained, though even now extreme care is required to avoid systematic errors. To give some idea of the results obtainable, we present in the following table the values of the velocity per second of a number of stars observed in 1896 and 1897 by Mr. H.F. Newall with the Bruce spectrograph attached to the great 25-inch Newall refractor of the Cambridge Observatory, and we have added the values found at Potsdam by Vogel and Scheiner. The results are expressed in kilometres (1 km. = 0.62 English mile). The sign + means that the star is receding from us,-that it is approaching.

Newall. Vogel. Scheiner.
Aldebaran + 49.2 + 47.6 + 49.4
Betelgeuze + 10.6 + 15.6 + 18.8
Procyon - 4.2 - 7.2 - 10.5
Pollux - 0.7 + 1.9 + 0.4
g Leonis - 39.9 - 36.5 - 40.5
Arcturus - 6.4 - 7.0 - 8.3

These results have been corrected for the earth's orbital motion round the sun, but not for the sun's motion through space, as the amount of the latter is practically unknown, or at least very uncertain; so that the above figures really represent the velocity per second of the various stars relative to the sun. We may add that the direction and velocity of the sun's motion may eventually be ascertained from spectroscopic measures of a great number of stars, and it seems likely that the sun's velocity will be much more accurately found in this way than by the older method of combining proper motions of stars with speculations as to the average distances of the various classes of stars. This has already been attempted by Dr. Kempf, who from the Potsdam spectrographic observations found the sun's velocity to be 18.6 kilometres, or 11.5 miles per second, a result which is probably not far from the truth.

But the spectra of the fixed stars can also tell us something about orbital motion in these extremely distant systems. If one star revolved round another in a plane passing through the sun, it must on one side of the orbit move straight towards us and on the other side move straight away from us, while it will not alter its distance from us while it is passing in front of, or behind, the central body. If we therefore find from the spectroscopic observations that a star is alternately moving towards and away from the earth in a certain period, there can be no doubt that this star is travelling round some unseen body (or, rather, round the centre of gravity of both) in the period indicated by the shifting of the spectral lines. In Chapter XIX. we mentioned the variable star Algol in the constellation Perseus, which is one of a class of variable stars distinguished by the fact that for the greater part of the period they remain of unaltered brightness, while for a very short time they become considerably fainter. That this was caused by some sort of an eclipse--or, in other words, by the periodic passage of a dark body in front of the star, hiding more or less of the latter from us--was the simplest possible hypothesis, and it had already years ago been generally accepted. But it was not possible to prove that this was the true explanation of the periodicity of stars like Algol until Professor Vogel, from the spectroscopic observations made at Potsdam, found that before every minimum Algol is receding from the sun, while it is approaching us after the minimum. Assuming the orbit to be circular, the velocity of Algol was found to be twenty-six miles per second. From this and the length of the period (2d. 22h. 48m. 55s.) and the time of obscuration it was easy to compute the size of the orbit and the actual dimensions of the two bodies. It was even possible to go a step further and to calculate from the orbital velocities the masses of the two bodies,[41] assuming them to be of equal density--an assumption which is no doubt very uncertain. The following are the approximate elements of the Algol system found by Vogel:--

Diameter of Algol 1,054,000 miles.
Diameter of companion 825,000 miles.
Distance between their centres 3,220,000 miles.
Orbital velocity of Algol 26 miles per sec.
Orbital velocity of companion 55 miles per sec.
Mass of Algol 4/9 of sun's mass.
Mass of companion 2/9 of sun's mass.

The period of Algol has been gradually decreasing during the last century (by six or seven seconds), but whether this is caused by the motion of the pair round a third and very much more distant body, as suggested by Mr. Chandler, has still to be found out.

We have already mentioned that in order to produce eclipses, and thereby variations of light, it is necessary that the line of sight should lie nearly in the plane of the orbit. It is also essential that there should be a considerable difference of brightness between the two bodies. These conditions must be fulfilled in the fifteen variable stars of the Algol class now known; but according to the theory of probability, there must be many more binary systems like that of Algol where these conditions are not fulfilled, and in those cases no variations will occur in the stars' brightness. Of course, we know many cases of a luminous star travelling round another, but there must also be cases of a large companion travelling round another at so small a distance that our telescopes are unable to "divide" the double star. This has actually been discovered by means of the spectroscope. If we suppose an extremely close double star to be examined with the spectroscope, the spectra of the two components will be superposed, and we shall not be aware that we really see two different spectra. But during the revolution of the two bodies round their common centre of gravity there must periodically come a time when one body is moving towards us and the other moving from us, and consequently the lines in the spectrum of the former will be subject to a minute, relative shift towards the violet end of the spectrum, and those of the other to a minute shift towards the red. Those lines which are common to the two spectra will therefore periodically become double. A discovery of this sort was first made in 1889 by Professor Pickering from photographs of the spectrum of Mizar, or z Ursa Majoris, the larger component of the well-known double star in the tail of the Great Bear. Certain of the lines were found to be double at intervals of fifty-two days. The maximum separation of the two components of each line corresponds to a relative velocity of one star as compared with the other of about a hundred miles per second, but subsequent observations have shown the case to be very complicated, either with a very eccentric elliptic orbit or possibly owing to the presence of a third body. The Harvard College photographs also showed periodic duplicity of lines in the star b Aurigae, the period being remarkably short, only three days and twenty-three hours and thirty-seven minutes. In 1891 Vogel found, from photographs of the spectrum of Spica, the first magnitude star in Virgo, that this star alternately recedes from and approaches to the solar system, the period being four days. Certain other "spectroscopic binaries" have since then been found, notably one component of Castor, with a period of three days, found by M. Belopolsky, and a star in the constellation Scorpio, with a period of only thirty-four hours, detected on the Harvard spectrograms.

Quite recently Mr. H.F. Newall, at Cambridge, and Mr. Campbell, of the Lick Observatory, have shown that a Aurigae, or Capella, consists of a sun-like star and a Procyon-like star, revolving in 104 days.

At first sight there