Seasoning of Wood by Joseph Bernard Wagner (bill gates best books txt) 📕

on the outside having been closed up, there is no exit for the vapor or steam that is being rapidly formed in the center. It must find its way out some way, and in doing so sets up strains, which result either in checking, warping, or hollow-horning. If the humidity had been kept higher, the outside of the material would not have dried so quickly, and the pores would have remained open for the exit of moisture from the interior of the wood, and this trouble would have been avoided.

Where the humidity is kept at a high point in the receiving end of the kiln, a higher rate of temperature may also be carried, and in that way the drying process is hastened with comparative safety.

It is essential, therefore, to have an ample supply of heat through the convection currents of the air; but in the case of wood the rate of evaporation must be controlled, else checking will occur. This can be done by means of the relative humidity, as stated before. It is clear now that when the air—or, more properly speaking, the space—is completely saturated no evaporation can take place at the given temperature. By reducing the humidity, evaporation takes place more and more rapidly.

Another bad feature of an insufficient and non-uniform supply of heat is that each piece of wood will be heated to the evaporating point on the outer surface, the inside remaining cool until considerable drying has taken place from the surface. Ordinarily in dry kilns high humidity and large circulation of air are antitheses to one another. To obtain the high humidity the circulation is either stopped altogether or greatly reduced, and to reduce the humidity a greater circulation is induced by opening the ventilators or otherwise increasing the draft. This is evidently not good practice, but as a rule is unavoidable in most dry kilns of present make. The humidity should be raised to check evaporation without reducing the circulation if possible.

While thin stock, such as cooperage and box stuff is less inclined to give trouble by undue checking than 1-inch and thicker, one will find that any dry kiln will give more uniform results and, at the same time, be more economical in the use of steam, when the humidity and temperature is carried at as high a point as possible without injury to the material to be dried.

Any well-made dry kiln which will fulfill the conditions required as to circulation and humidity control should work satisfactorily; but each case must be studied by itself, and the various factors modified to suit the peculiar conditions of the problem in hand. In every new case the material should be constantly watched and studied and, if checking begins, the humidity should be increased until it stops. It is not reducing the circulation, but adding the necessary moisture to the air, that should be depended on to prevent checking. For this purpose it is well to have steam jets in the kiln so that if needed they are ready at hand.

Kiln-drying

There are two distinct ways of handling material in dry kilns. One way is to place the load of lumber in a chamber where it remains in the same place throughout the operation, while the conditions of the drying medium are varied as the drying progresses. This is the "apartment" kiln or stationary method. The other is to run the lumber in at one end of the chamber on a wheeled truck and gradually move it along until the drying process is completed, when it is taken out at the opposite end of the kiln. It is the usual custom in these kilns to maintain one end of the chamber moist and the other end dry. This is known as the "progressive" type of kiln, and is the one most commonly used in large operations.

It is, however, the least satisfactory of the two where careful drying is required, since the conditions cannot be so well regulated and the temperatures and humidities are apt to change with any change of wind. The apartment method can be arranged so that it will not require any more kiln space or any more handling of lumber than the progressive type. It does, however, require more intelligent operation, since the conditions in the drying chamber must be changed as the drying progresses. With the progressive type the conditions, once properly established, remain the same.

To obtain draft or circulation three methods are in use—by forced draft or a blower usually placed outside the kiln, by ventilation, and by internal circulation and condensation. A great many patents have been taken out on different methods of ventilation, but in actual operation few kilns work exactly as intended. Frequently the air moves in the reverse direction for which the ventilators were planned. Sometimes a condenser is used in connection with the blower and the air is recirculated. It is also—and more satisfactorily—used with the gentle internal-gravity currents of air.

Many patents have been taken out for heating systems. The differences among these, however, have more to do the mechanical construction than with the process of drying. In general, the heating is either direct or indirect. In the former steam coils are placed in the chamber with the lumber, and in the latter the air is heated by either steam coils or a furnace before it is introduced into the drying chamber.

Moisture is sometimes supplied by means of free steam jets in the kiln or in the entering air; but more often the moisture evaporated from the lumber is relied upon to maintain the humidity necessary.

A substance becomes dry by the evaporation of its inherent moisture into the surrounding space. If this space be confined it soon becomes saturated and the process stops. Hence, constant change is necessary in order that the moisture given off may be continually carried away.

In practice, air movement, is therefore absolutely essential to the process of drying. Heat is merely a useful accessory which serves to decrease the time of drying by increasing both the rate of evaporation and the absorbing power of the surrounding space.

It makes no difference whether this space is a vacuum or filled with air; under either condition it will take up a stated weight of vapor. From this it appears that the vapor molecules find sufficient space between the molecules of air. But the converse is not true, for somewhat less air will be contained in a given space saturated with vapor than in one devoid of moisture. In other words the air does not seem to find sufficient space between the molecules of vapor.

If the temperature of the confined space be increased, opportunity will thereby be provided for the vaporization of more water, but if it be decreased, its capacity for moisture will be reduced and visible water will be deposited. The temperature at which this takes place is known as the "dew-point" and depends upon the initial degree of saturation of the given space; the less the relative saturation the lower the dew-point.

Careful piling of the material to be dried, both in the yard and dry kiln, is essential to good results in drying.

Air-dried material is not dry, and its moisture is too unevenly distributed to insure good behavior after manufacture.

It is quite a difficult matter to give specific or absolute correct weights of any species of timber when thoroughly or properly dried, in order that one may be guided in these kiln operations, as a great deal depends upon the species of wood to be dried, its density, and upon the thickness which it has been cut, and its condition when entering the drying chamber.

Elm will naturally weigh less than beech, and where the wood is close-grained or compact it will weigh more than coarse-grained wood of the same species, and, therefore, no set rules can be laid down, as good judgment only should be used, as the quality of the drying is not purely one of time. Sometimes the comparatively slow process gives excellent results, while to rush a lot of stock through the kiln may be to turn it out so poorly seasoned that it will not give satisfaction when worked into the finished product. The mistreatment of the material in this respect results in numerous defects, chief among which are warping and twisting, checking, case-hardening, and honeycombing, or, as sometimes called, hollow-horning.

Since the proportion of sap and heartwood varies with size, age, species, and individual trees, the following figures as regards weight must be regarded as mere approximations:

Pounds of Water Lost in Drying 100 Pounds of Green Wood in the Kiln

  Sapwood or
outer part Heartwood
or interior (1) Pine, cedar, spruce, and fir 45-65 6-25 (2) Cypress, extremely variable 50-65 18-60 (3) Poplar, cottonwood, and basswood 60-65 40-60 (4) Oak, beech, ash, maple, birch, elm, hickory, chestnut, walnut, and sycamore 40-50 30-40

The lighter kinds have the most water in the sapwood; thus sycamore has more water than hickory, etc.

The efficiency of the drying operations depends a great deal upon the way in which, the lumber is piled, especially when the humidity is not regulated. From the theory of drying it is evident that the rate of evaporation in dry kilns where the humidity is not regulated depends entirely upon the rate of circulation, other things being equal. Consequently, those portions of the wood which receive the greatest amount of air dry the most rapidly, and vice versa. The only way, therefore, in which anything like uniform drying can take place is where the lumber is so piled that each portion of it comes in contact with the same amount of air.

In the Forestry Service kiln (Fig. 30), where the degree of relative humidity is used to control the rate of drying, the amount of circulation makes little difference, provided it exceeds a certain amount. It is desirable to pile the lumber so as to offer as little frictional resistance as possible and at the same time secure uniform circulation. If circulation is excessive in any place it simply means waste of energy but no other injury to the lumber.

The best method of piling is one which permits the heated air to pass through the pile in a somewhat downward direction. The natural tendency of the cooled air to descend is thus taken advantage of in assisting the circulation in the kiln. This is especially important when cold or green lumber is first introduced into the kiln. But even when the lumber has become warmed the cooling due to the evaporation increases the density of the mixture of the air and vapor.

Kiln-drying Gum

The following article was published by the United States Forestry Service as to the best method of kiln-drying gum:

Piling.—Perhaps the most important factor in good kiln-drying, especially in the case of the gums, is the method of piling. It is our opinion that proper and very careful piling will greatly reduce the loss due to warping. A good method of piling is to place the lumber lengthwise of the kiln and on an incline cross-wise. The warm air should rise at the higher side of the pile and descend between the courses of lumber. The reason for this is very simple and the principle has been applied in the manufacture of the best ice boxes for some time. The most efficient refrigerators are iced at the side, the ice compartment opening to the cooling chamber at the top and bottom. The warm air from above is cooled by melting the ice. It then becomes denser and settles down into the main chamber. The articles in the cooling room warm the air as they cool, so it rises to the top and again comes in contact with the ice, thus completing the cycle. The rate of this natural