Sixteen Experimental Investigations from the Harvard Psychological Laboratory by Hugo Münsterberg (100 books to read .txt) 📕

image, the ‘mass’ being in both figures approximately the same. Nor

did the advantage of the broken line escape the notice of the subject.

“I found myself,” is the comment of one, “following the contour of the

star—exploring. The circle I could go around in a twinkle.” Again,

“the points entered the field before the rest of the figure.” And

again, “the angle is the last to fade away.”

[Illustration: FIG. 2.]

Now this mental exploration involves, of course, changes in the

direction of the attention corresponding in some way to changes in the

direction of the lines. Does this shifting of the attention involve

ideated movements? There can be little doubt that it does. “I felt an

impulse,” says one, “to turn in the direction of the image seen.” And

the unconscious actual movements, particularly those of the eyes,

which are associated with ideated movements, took place so often that

it is hard to believe they were ever wholly excluded. Such movements,

being slight and automatically executed, were not at first noticed.

The subjects were directed, in fact, to attend in all cases primarily

to the appearance and disappearance of the images, and it was only

after repeated observations and questions were put, that they became

aware of associated movements, and were able, at the close of an

observation, to describe them. After that, it became a common report

that the eyes followed the attention. And as we must assume some

central influence as the cause of this movement, which while the eyes

were closed could have no reflex relation to the stimulus of light, we

must impute it to the character of the ideas, or to their physical

substrates.

The idea, or, as we may call it, in view of the attitude of the

subject, the internal sensory impression, thus seems to bear a double

aspect. It is, in the cases noted, at once sensory and motor, or at

any rate involves motor elements. And the effect of the activity of

such motor elements is both to increase the distinctness of the image

and to prolong the duration of the process by which it is apprehended.

The sensory process thus stands in intimate dependence on the motor.

Nor would failure to move the eyes or any other organ with the

movement of attention, if established, be conclusive as against the

presence of motor elements. A motor impulse or idea does not always

result in apparent peripheral movement. In the suppressed speech,

which is the common language of thought, the possibility of incipient

or incomplete motor innervations is well recognized. But where the

peripheral movement actually occurs it must be accounted for. And as

the cause here must be central, it seems reasonable to impute it to

certain motor innervations which condition the shifting of the mental

attitude and may be incipient merely, but which, if completed, result

in the shifting of the eyes and the changes of bodily attitude which

accompany the scrutiny of an external object. And the sensory process

is, to some extent at least, conditioned by the motor, if, indeed, the

two are anything more than different aspects of one and the same

process.[7]

[7] Cf. Münsterberg, H.: ‘Grundzüge d. Psychologie,’ Bd. I.,

Leipzig, 1900, S. 532.

But where, now, the subject is occupied in mentally tracing the

boundaries of one of his two images he must inhibit all motor

innervations incompatible with the innervations which condition such

tracing: the rival process must cease, and the rival image will fade.

He may, it is true, include both images in the same mental sweep. The

boundary line is not the only possible line of movement. In fact, we

may regard this more comprehensive glance as equivalent to an

enlargement of the boundaries so as to include different mental

objects, instead of different parts of but one. Or, since the

delimitation of our ‘objects’ varies with our attitude or aim, we may

call it an enlargement of the object. But in any case the mental

tracing of a particular boundary or particular spatial dimensions

seems to condition the sense of the corresponding content, and through

inhibition of inconsistent movements to inhibit the sense of a

different content. No measure of the span of consciousness can, of

course, be found in these reports. The movements of the attention are

subtle and swift, and there was nothing in the form of the experiments

to determine at any precise instant its actual scope. All we need

assume, therefore, when the images are said to be seen together, is

that neither has, for the time being, any advantage over the other in

drawing attention to itself. If in the complete observation, however,

any such advantage appears, we may treat it as a case of inhibition.

By definition, an idea which assumes a place in consciousness which

but for itself, as experiment indicates, another might occupy,

inhibits the other.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.]

TABLE III.

1 2 3 4 5 6

S L S L S L S L S L S L

I. 22 24 19.5 23 20 26 21.5 21 21 26 18 31

II. 31 39 31.5 36 15 32.5 11 22.5 13.5 24.5 7.5 23

III. 10.5 43.5 12 21.5 13 14.5 19 10.5 18.5 30.5 7 18.5

IV. 34.5 29.5 29.5 24 40.5 33 30.5 32.5 15 30 26 30

V. 31.5 30 42 45 39 51 47 49.5 41 37 46 45

VI. 22 20 20.5 22 23.5 22 25 16 24 20 22 25.5

VII. 53.5 53.5 23.5 23.5 47.5 47.5 51 52 52.5 53 51 52

VIII. 34 40.5 23 29 21 22 22 37.5 34.5 35 27.5 28

IX. 19.5 45 19.5 46 22 23.5 23.5 48 26 45.5 19 44.5

X. 16 30.5 12 35 21 24.5 8.5 41 15.5 33 19 28

XI. 38.5 36.5 21 48.5 30 54.5 31 55.5 32 54 12 50

313 392 254 353.5 292.5 381.5 290 386 293.5 388.5 255 375.5

7 8 9 10 Averages

S L S L S L S L S L

I. 20.5 31.5 21.5 28.5 22.5 28 22.5 26 20.90 26.50

II. 14.5 17.5 19 20 11 4.5 7 30.5 16.10 25.00

III. 10 22 8.5 26 17 16 8 16 12.35 21.90

IV. 27.5 28.5 35 30.5 23.5 46 27.5 49.5 28.95 33.35

V. 40.5 35 24.5 22.5 21 31 21.5 21.5 35.40 36.75

VI. 22.5 18.5 11.5 21 20 27 22.5 24 21.35 21.60

VII. 44.5 46.5 52 51 33.5 49 39.5 50.5 44.85 47.85

VIII. 19.5 20 21 27 19.5 27.5 18.5 22.5 24.05 29.60

IX. 18.5 46 13 42 20 42 18.5 43 19.95 44.90

X. 18.5 24 20.5 21 20.5 22 18.5 28.5 17.00 28.75

XI. 21 49 32 53.5 38 53.5 34.5 46.5 29.00 50.15

257.5 338.5 258.5 343 246.5 346.5 238.5 358.5 24.54 33.30

L: large. S: small.

General average, S, 24.54 sec.; L, 33.30 sec.

Series No. III.—In the third series, where the variant is the

extent of (gray) surface exposed, the preponderance is in favor of the

image corresponding to the larger object. This shows an appearance of

some 33 seconds per minute as against 24 for the smaller (Table III.).

Here the most obvious thing in the reports, aside from the relative

durations, is the greater vividness of the favored image. Something,

no doubt, is due to the greater length of boundary line and other

spatial dimensions involved in the greater size. And it is this

superiority, and the ampler movements which it implies, which were

probably felt by the subject who reports ‘a feeling of expansion in

the eye which corresponds to the larger image and of contraction in

the other.’ But the more general comment is as to the greater

vividness of the larger image. “The larger images seem brighter

whichever side they are on.” “The larger is a little more distinct, as

if it were nearer to me.” “Large much more vivid than small.” Such are

the reports which run through the series. And they point, undoubtedly,

to a cumulative effect, corresponding to a well-known effect in

sensation, in virtue of which greater extension may become the

equivalent of greater intensity. In other words, the larger image made

the stronger impression. Now in external perception the stronger

impression tends to hold the attention more securely; that is, it is

more effective in producing those adjustments of the sensory organs

which perceptive attention implies. So here what was noticed as the

superior brightness and distinctness of the larger image may be

supposed to imply some advantage in the latter in securing those

adjustments of the mental attitude which were favorable to the

apprehension of that image. Advantage means here, again, in part at

least, if the considerations we have urged are sound, inhibition of

those motor processes which would tend to turn attention to a rival.

And here, again, the adjustment may reach no external organ. An

incipient innervation, which is all that we need assume as the

condition of a change of mental attitude, would suffice to block, or

at least to hamper, inconsistent innervations no more complete than

itself.

[Illustration: Fig. 4.]

TABLE IV.

1 2 3 4

G W G W G W G W

I. 15.5 28.5 21.5 32.5 20 33 21 28.5

II. 39.5 23 22.5 22.5 19 20.5 35.5 17.5

III. 13.5 12.5 32 4.5 8.5 10 11.5 11.5

IV. 30 33.5 38 36.5 36 39.5 37.5 13.5

V. 33.5 32.5 34.5 32 33 35 45 36.5

VI. 15 22 21 21 18.5 22 12 22

VII. 53.5 50 43 46 54.5 55 56 56

VIII. 15.5 24.5 24 25 20 13 16.5 21

IX. 17.5 44 9.5 46 18.5 43.5 16 42

X. 25.5 19 29.5 19 21 20.5 23.5 18

XI. 35 42.5 13 29.5 18.5 46 16 38

294 332 288.5 314.5 267.5 338 290.5 304.5

5 6 7 8

G W G W G W G W

I. 24 26.5 23.5 25 19.5 30.5 21 29

II. 21 29.5 20 18.5 29 16.5 28.5 14

III. 20.5 8.5 11 11.5 10 14 23 16.5

IV. 39.5 28.5 34.5 22.5 23 30.5 33.5 18

V. 45 53 48 51 45 29 32.5 34.5

VI. 21.5 28 18 32 20.5 19 21.5 18

VII. 54.5 56 54.5 54.5 45 46 49 49

VIII. 24 26.5 23.5 22.5 24 17.5 31 31.5

IX. 16 44 14 43.5 9 43.5 13 44.5

X. 24.5 18 24 21.5 25.5 24 22 22.5

XI. 20.5 8.5 15 36.5 33 23 34 29

311 327 286 339 283.5 293.5 309 306.5

9 10 11 12 Averages.

G W G W G W G W G W

I. 25 25.5 22.5 21 25 26.5 27 21.5 22.95 27.33

II. 20 25 15 20 29 32 13.5 20 24.37 21.58

III. 12 20 12.5 17.5 10.5 21 3 23 14.00 14.25

IV. 33 19.5 35.5 28 21.5 34.5 25.5 26.5 32.29 27.58

V. 51 50 35 30.5 40.5 54.5 45.5 52.5 40.70 40.91

VI. 13 29.5 25 33.5 28.5 23 23.5 27.5 19.83 24.79

VII. 46.5 39.5 38.5 44.5 43.5 47.5 42.5 34.5 48.41 48.20

VIII. 17.5 25.5 22 15.5 21 29 22.5 21.5 21.79 22.75

IX. 13 43.5 12.5 41.5 15 42 11 40 13.75 43.16

X. 24 24 27 19 25 21.5 23.5 23.5 24.58 20.87

XI. 13.5 49 2.5 43 14 34 23 22 19.83 33.41

268.5 351 248 314 273.5 365.5 260.5 312.5 25.61 29.53

G: Gray. W: White.

General average: G, 25.61 sec.; W, 29.53 sec.

Series No. IV.—This and the next following series do not suggest

much that differs in principle from what has been stated already. It

should be noted, however, that in the white-gray series (Table IV.)