A Handbook of the English Language by Robert Gordon Latham (cat reading book txt) đź“•
CHAPTER II.
SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES.
428. Rundell and Bridge's 301 429. Right and left 301
CHAPTER III.
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.
430. Pleonasm 302 431. Collocation 302 432. Government 302 433. More wise, wiser 303 434. The better of the two 304 435. Syntax of adjectives simple 304
CHAPTER IV.
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
436. Pleonasm 305 437. Father's, not father his 305 438. Pleonasm and
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Although may precede a proposition which is admitted as well as one which is doubted.
a. Although the children are, &c.
b. Although the children be, &c.
If, too, may precede propositions wherein there is no doubt whatever implied: in other words it may be used instead of since.
In some languages this interchange goes farther than in others; in the Greek, for instance, such is the case with εἰ, to a very great extent indeed.
Hence we must look to the meaning of the sentence in general, rather than to the particular conjunction used.
It is a philological fact that if may stand instead of since.
It is also a philological fact that when it does so it should be followed by the indicative mood.
This is written in the way of illustration. What applies to if applies to other conjunctions as well.
§ 511. As a point of practice, the following method of determining the amount of doubt expressed in a conditional proposition is useful:—
Insert, immediately after the conjunction, one of the two following phrases,—(1.) as is the case; (2.) as may or may not be the case. By ascertaining which of these two supplements expresses the meaning of the speaker, we ascertain the mood of the verb which follows.
When the first formula is the one required, there is no element of doubt, and the verb should be in the indicative mood. If (as is the case), he is gone, I must follow him.
When the second formula is the one required, there is an element of doubt, and the verb should be in the subjunctive mood. If (as may or may not be the case) he be gone, I must follow him.
§ 512. The use of the word that in expressions like I eat that I may live, &c., is a modification of the subjunctive construction, that is conveniently called potential. It denotes that one act is done for the sake of supplying the power or opportunity for the performance of another.
The most important point connected with the powers of that is the so-called succession of tenses.
§ 513. The succession of tenses.—Whenever the conjunction that expresses intention, and consequently connects two verbs, the second of which takes place after the first, the verbs in question must be in the same tense.
I do this that I may gain by it
I did this that I might gain by it.
In the Greek language this is expressed by a difference of mood; the subjunctive being the construction equivalent to may, the optative to might. The Latin idiom coincides with the English.
A little consideration will show that this rule is absolute. For a man to be doing one action (in present time) in order that some other action may follow it (in past time) is to reverse the order of cause and effect. To do anything in A.D. 1851, that something may result from it in 1850 is a contradiction; and so it is to say I do this that I might gain by it.
The reasons against the converse construction are nearly, if not equally cogent. To have done anything at any previous time in order that a present effect may follow, is, ipso facto, to convert a past act into a present one, or, to speak in the language of the grammarian, to convert an aorist into a perfect. To say I did this that I may gain by it, is to make, by the very effect of the expression, either may equivalent to might, or did equivalent to have done.
I did this that I might gain.
I have done this that I may gain.
§ 514. Disjunctives.—Disjunctives (or, nor) are of two sorts, real and nominal.
A king or queen always rules in England. Here the disjunction is real; king or queen being different names for different objects. In all real disjunctions the inference is, that if one out of two (or more) individuals (or classes) do not perform a certain action, the other does.
A sovereign or supreme ruler always rules in England. Here the disjunction is nominal; sovereign and supreme governor being different names for the same object. In all nominal disjunctives the inference is, that if an agent (or agents) do not perform a certain action under one name, he does (or they do) it under another.
Nominal disjunctives are called by Harris subdisjunctives.
In the English language there is no separate word to distinguish the nominal from the real disjunctive. In Latin, vel is considered by Harris to be disjunctive, sive subdisjunctive. As a periphrasis, the combination in other words is subdisjunctive.
Both nominal and real disjunctives agree in this,—whatever may be the number of nouns which they connect, the construction of the verb is the same as if there were but one—Henry, or John, or Thomas, walks (not walk); the sun, or solar luminary, shines (not shine). The disjunctive isolates the subject, however much it may be placed in juxtaposition with other nouns.
CHAPTER XXVII.THE SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE.
§ 515. When the verb is in the infinitive mood, the negative precedes it.—Not to advance is to retreat.
When the verb is not in the infinitive mood, the negative follows it.—He advanced not. I cannot.
This rule is absolute. It only seems to precede the verb in such expressions as I do not advance, I cannot advance, I have not advanced, &c. However, the words do, can, and have, are no infinitives; and it consequently follows them. The word advance is an infinitive, and it consequently precedes it. Wallis's rule makes an equivalent statement, although differently. "Adverbium negandi not (non) verbo postponitur (nempe auxiliari primo si adsit; aut si non adsit auxiliare, verbo principali): aliis tamen orationis partibus præfigi solet."—P. 113.
That the negative is rarely used, except with an auxiliary, in other words, that the presence of a negative converts a simple form like it burneth not into the circumlocution it does not burn, is a fact in the practice of the English language. The syntax is the same in either expression.
§ 516. What may be called the distribution of the negative is pretty regular in English. Thus, when the word not comes between an indicative, imperative, or subjunctive mood and an infinitive verb, it almost always is taken with the word which it follows—I can not eat may mean either I can—not eat (i.e., I can abstain), or I can not—eat (i.e., I am unable to eat); but, as stated above, it almost always has the latter signification.
But not always. In Byron's "Deformed Transformed" we find the following lines:—
Clay! not dead but soulless,
Though no mortal man would choose thee,
An immortal no less
Deigns not to refuse thee.
Here not to refuse = to accept; and is probably a Grecism. To not refuse would, perhaps, be better.
The next expression is still more foreign to the English idiom:—
For not to have been dipped in Lethe's lake
Could save the son of Thetis from to die.
Here not is to be taken with could.
§ 517. In the present English, two negatives make an affirmative. I have not not seen him = I have seen him. In Greek this was not the case. Duæ aut plures negativæ apud Græcos vehementius negant is a well known rule. The Anglo-Saxon idiom differed from the English and coincided with the Greek. The French negative is only apparently double; words like point, pas, mean not not, but at all. Je ne parle pas = I not speak at all, not I not speak no.
§ 518. Questions of appeal.—All questions imply want of information; want of information may then imply doubt; doubt, perplexity; and perplexity the absence of an alternative. In this way, what are called, by Mr. Arnold,[65] questions of appeal, are, practically speaking, negatives. What should I do? when asked in extreme perplexity, means that nothing can well be done. In the following passage we have the presence of a question instead of a negative:—
Or hear'st thou (cluis, Lat.) rather pure ethereal stream,
Whose fountain who (no one) shall tell?—Paradise Lost.
CHAPTER XXVIII.ON THE CASE ABSOLUTE.
§ 519. Broadly speaking, all adverbial constructions are absolute. The term, however, is conveniently limited to a particular combination of the noun, verb, and participle. When two actions are connected with each other, either by the fact of their simultaneous occurrence, or as cause and effect, they may be expressed within the limits of a single proposition, by expressing the one by means of a verb, and the other by means of a noun and participle agreeing with each other. The door being open, the horse was stolen.
Considering the nature of the connection between the two actions, we find good grounds for expecting Ă priori that the participle will be in the instrumental case, when such exists in the language: and when not, in some case allied to it, i.e., the ablative or dative.
In Latin the ablative is the case that is used absolutely. Sole orto, claruit dies.
In Anglo-Saxon the absolute case was the dative. This is logical.
In the present English, however, the nominative is the absolute case. He made the best proverbs, him alone excepted, is an expression of Tillotson's. We should now write he alone excepted. The present mode of expression is only to be justified by considering the nominative form to be a dative one, just as in the expression you are here, the word you, although an accusative, is considered as a nominative. A real nominative absolute is as illogical as a real accusative case governing a verb.
PART VI.PROSODY.
§ 520. The word Prosody is derived from a Greek word (prosodia) signifying accent. It is used by Latin and English grammarians in a wider sense, and includes not only the doctrines of accent and quantity, but also the laws of metre and versification.
§ 521. Observe the accents in the following lines:—
Then fáre thee wéll, mine ówn dear lóve,
The wĂłrld hath nĂłw for Ăşs
No greáter griĂ©f, no paĂn abĂłve
The paĂn of párting thĂşs.—Moore.
Here the syllables accented are the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th, 20th, 22nd, 24th, 26th, 28th; that is, every other syllable.—Again,
At the clĂłse of the dáy, when the hámlet is stĂll,
And the mórtals the sweéts of forgétfulness próve,
And when nĂłught but the tĂłrrent is heárd on the hĂll,
And there's nĂłught but the nĂghtingale's sĂłng in the grĂłve.—Beattie.
Here the syllables accented are the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th, 15th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 27th, 30th, 33rd, 36th, 39th, 42nd, 45th, 48th; that is, every third syllable.
§ 522. Metre is a general term for the recurrence within certain intervals of syllables similarly affected. The syllables that have just been numbered are similarly affected, being similarly accented. Accent is not the only quality of a syllable, which by returning at regular intervals can constitute metre. It is the one, however, upon which English metre depends. English metre essentially consists in the regular recurrence of syllables similarly accented.
Abbot.—And whĂ˝ not lĂve and áct with Ăłther mĂ©n?
Manfred.—BecaĂşse my náture wás avĂ©rse from lĂfe;
And yét not crúel, fór I woúld not máke,
But fĂnd a dĂ©solátion:—lĂke the wĂnd,
The réd-hot breáth of thé most lóne simoóm,
Which dwĂ©lls but Ăn the dĂ©sert, ánd sweeps o'Ă©r
The bárren sánds which beár no shrúbs to blást,
And rĂ©vels Ăł'er their wĂld and árid wáves,
And seĂ©keth nĂłt so thát it Ăs not soĂşght,
But béing mét is deádly: súch hath beén
The páth of mĂ˝ exĂstence.—Byron.
§ 523. Measures.—For every accented syllable in the following line, write the
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