A Handbook of the English Language by Robert Gordon Latham (cat reading book txt) đź“•
CHAPTER II.
SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES.
428. Rundell and Bridge's 301 429. Right and left 301
CHAPTER III.
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.
430. Pleonasm 302 431. Collocation 302 432. Government 302 433. More wise, wiser 303 434. The better of the two 304 435. Syntax of adjectives simple 304
CHAPTER IV.
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
436. Pleonasm 305 437. Father's, not father his 305 438. Pleonasm and
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The wáy was lĂłng, the wĂnd was cĂłld.—Scott.
or expressed symbolically
x a x a x a x a,
where x coincides with the, a with way, &c.
§ 524. Determine the length of the line in question.—It is plain that this may be done in two ways. We may either measure by the syllables, and say that the line consists of eight syllables; or by the accents, and say that it consists of four accents. In this latter case we take the accented syllable with its corresponding unaccented one, and, grouping the two together, deal with the pair at once. Now, a group of syllables thus taken together is called a measure. In the line in question the way (x a) is one measure, was long (x a) another, and so on throughout; the line itself consisting of four measures.
§ 525. Trisyllabic measures.—The number of measures consisting of two syllables, or dissyllabic measures, is necessarily limited to two, expressed a x and x a respectively. But beyond these there are in the English language measures of three syllables, or trisyllabic measures. The number of these is necessarily limited to three.
The first of these is exhibited in the word mérrily (a x x).
Mérrily, mérrily sháll I live nów,
Únder the blóssom that hángs on the boúgh.—Shakspeare.
The second is exhibited by the word disáble (x a x).
But vaĂnly thou wárrest,
For thĂs is alĂłne in
Thy pówer to decláre,
That Ăn the dim fĂłrest
Thou heárd'st a low moáning,
And sáw'st a bright lády surpássingly faĂr.—Coleridge.
§ 526. The third is exhibited by the word cavaliér (x x a).
There's a beaĂşty for Ă©ver unfádingly brĂght,
Like the lĂłng ruddy lápse of a sĂşmmer-day's nĂght.—Moore.
When grouped together according to certain rules, measures form lines and verses; and lines and verses, regularly arranged, constitute couplets, triplets, and stanzas, &c.
§ 527. The expression of measures, lines, &c., by such symbols as a x, x a, &c., is metrical notation.
§ 528. Rhyme.—We can have English verse without rhyme. We cannot have English verse without accent. Hence accent is an essential; rhyme an accessory to metre.
§ 529. Analysis of a pair of rhyming syllables.—Let the syllables told and bold be taken to pieces, and let the separate parts of each be compared. Viewed in reference to metre, they consist of three parts or elements: 1. the vowel (o); 2. the part preceding the vowel (t and b respectively); 3. the parts following the vowel (ld). Now the vowel (o) and the parts following the vowel (ld) are alike in both words (old); but the part preceding the vowel is different in the different words (told, bold). This difference between the parts preceding the vowels is essential; since, if it were not for this, the two words would be identical, or rather there would be but one word altogether. This is the case with I and eye. Sound for sound (although different in spelling) the two words are identical, and, consequently, the rhyme is faulty.
Again—compared with the words bold and told, the words teeth and breeze have two of the elements necessary to constitute a rhyme. The vowels are alike (ee), whilst the parts preceding the vowels are different (br and t); and, as far as these two matters are concerned, the rhyme is a good one, tee and bree. Notwithstanding this, there is anything rather than a rhyme; since the parts following the vowel (th and ze) instead of agreeing, differ. Breathe and beneath are in the same predicament, because the th is not sounded alike in the two words.
Again—the words feel and mill constitute only a false and imperfect rhyme. Sound for sound, the letters f and m (the parts preceding the vowel) are different. This is as it should be. Also, sound for sound, l and ll (the parts following the vowel) are identical; and this is as it should be also: but ee and i (the vowels) are different, and this difference spoils the rhyme. None and own are in the same predicament; since one o is sounded as o in note, and the other as the u in but.
From what has gone before we get the notion of true and perfect rhymes as opposed to false and imperfect ones. For two (or more) words to rhyme to each other, it is necessary
a. That the vowel be the same in both.
b. That the parts following the vowel be the same.
c. That the parts preceding the vowel be different.
Beyond this it is necessary that the syllables, to form a full and perfect rhyme, should be accented syllables. Sky and lie form good rhymes, but sky and merrily bad ones, and merrily and silly worse. Lines like the second and fourth of the following stanza are slightly exceptionable on this score: indeed, many readers sacrifice the accent in the word mérrily to the rhyme, and pronounce it merrilý.
The wĂtch she hĂ©ld the haĂr in her hánd,
The rĂ©d flame blázed hĂgh;
And roúnd aboút the cáldron stoút,
They dánced right mérrilý.—Kirke White.
§ 530. In matters of rhyme the letter h counts as nothing. High and I, hair and air, are imperfect rhymes, because h (being no articulate sound) counts as nothing, and so the parts before the vowel i and a are not different (as they ought to be) but identical.
Whose generous children narrow'd not their hearts
With commerce, giv'n alone to arms and arts.—Byron.
§ 531. Words where the letters coincide, but the sounds differ, are only rhymes to the eye. Breathe and beneath are both in this predicament; so also are cease and ease (eaze).
In the fat age of pleasure, wealth, and ease,
Sprang the rank weed, and thrived with large increase.—Pope.
§ 532. If the sounds coincide, the difference of the letters is unimportant.
Bold in the practice of mistaken rules,
Prescribe, apply, and call their masters fools.
They talk of principles, but notions prize,
And all to one loved folly sacrifice.—Pope.
§ 533. Single rhymes.—An accented syllable standing by itself, and coming under the conditions given above, constitutes a single rhyme.
'Tis hard to say if greater want of skill
Appear in writing or in judging ill;
But of the two, less dangerous is the offence
To tire the patience than mislead the sense.
Some few in that, but thousands err in this;
Ten censure wrong, for one that writes amiss.—Pope.
§ 534. Double rhymes.—An accented syllable followed by an unaccented one, and coming under the conditions given above, constitutes a double rhyme.
The meeting points the sacred hair dissever
From her fair head for ever and for ever.—Pope.
Prove and explain a thing till all men doubt it,
And write about it, Goddess, and about it.—Pope.
§ 535. An accented syllable followed by two unaccented ones, and coming under the conditions given above, constitutes a treble rhyme.
Beware that its fatal ascéndancy
Do not tempt thee to mope and repine;
With a humble and hopeful depéndency
Still await the good pleasure divine.
Success in a higher beátitude,
Is the end of what's under the Pole;
A philosopher takes it with grátitude,
And believes it the best on the whole.—Byron.
§ 536. Metres where there is no rhyme are called blank metres.
Of man's first disobedience and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,
Sing, Heavenly Muse!—Milton.
The quality of mercy is not strained.
It droppeth as the gentle dew from heaven
Upon the place beneath; it is twice bless'd,
It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes
'Tis mightiest of the mighty, it becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown.
His sceptre shows the force of temporal power,
The attribute of awe and majesty,
Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings:
But mercy is above this sceptred sway;
It is enthroned in the hearts of kings:
It is an attribute to God himself;
And earthly power doth then show likest God's,
When mercy seasons justice.—Shakspeare.
§ 537. The last measure in a line or verse is indifferent as to its length.—By referring to the section upon single rhymes, we shall find that the number of syllables is just double the number of accents; that is, to each accented there is one unaccented syllable, and no more. Hence, with five accents, there are to each line ten syllables. This is not the case with all verses. Some rhymes are double, and the last accented syllable has two unaccented ones to follow it. Hence, with five accents there are to each line eleven syllables. Now it is in the last measure that this supernumerary unaccented syllable appears; and it is a general rule, that, in the last measure of any verse, supernumerary unaccented syllables can be admitted without destroying the original character of the measure.
§ 538. See the verses in the section on double rhymes. Here the original character of the measure is x a throughout, until we get to the words dissĂ©ver and for Ă©ver, and afterwards to men doĂşbt it, and aboĂşt it. At the first view it seems proper to say that in these last-mentioned cases x a is converted into x a x. A different view, however, is the more correct one. DissĂ©ver and for Ă©ver, are rather x a with a syllable over. This extra syllable may be expressed by the sign plus ( + ), so that the words in point may be expressed by x a +, rather than by x a x. It is very clear that a measure whereof the last syllable is accented (that is, measures like x a, presĂşme, or x x a, cavalĂer), can only vary from their original character on the side of excess; that is, they can only be altered by the addition of fresh syllables. To subtract a syllable from such feet is impossible; since it is only the last syllable that is capable of being subtracted. If that last syllable, however, be the accented syllable of the measure, the whole measure is annihilated. Nothing remains but the unaccented syllable preceding; and this, as no measure can subsist without an accent, must be counted as a supernumerary part of the preceding measure.
§ 539. With the measures a x, a x x, x a x, the case is different. Here there is room for syllable or syllables to be subtracted.
QueĂ©n and hĂşntress, cháste and faĂr,
NĂłw the sĂşn is laĂd to slĂ©ep,
Seated Ăn thy sĂlver chaĂr,
Státe in wónted spléndour keép.
HĂ©sperĂşs invĂłkes thy lĂght,
GĂłddess, Ă©xquisĂtely brĂght.—Ben Jonson.
In all these lines the last measure is deficient in a syllable, yet the deficiency is allowable, because each measure is the last one of the line. The formula for expressing faĂr, slĂ©ep, chaĂr, &c. is not a, but rather a x followed by the minus sign (-), or a x-.
A little consideration will show that amongst the English measures, x a and x x a naturally form single, a x and x a x double, and a x x treble rhymes.
§ 540. The chief metres in English are of the formula x a. It is only a few that are known by fixed names. These are as follows:—
1. Gay's stanza.—Lines of three measures, x a, with alternate rhymes. The odd (i.e. the 1st and 3rd) rhymes double.
'Twas when the seas were roaring
With hollow blasts of wind,
A damsel lay deploring,
All on
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